The secret and soul of Marlboro: Phillip Morris and the origins, spread, and denial of nicotine freebasing

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 98, Issue 7, 2008, Pages 1184-1194

  Stevenson, Terrell ^a   Proctor, Robert N ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMMONIA; BICARBONATE; CARBON DIOXIDE; CARBONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CIGARETTE SMOKE; DIAMMONIUM PHOSPHATE; ETHANOLAMINE DERIVATIVE; NICOTINE; POTASSIUM CARBONATE; FLAVORING AGENT;

ALKALINITY; BIOAVAILABILITY; CHEMICAL PROCEDURES; CIGARETTE SMOKING; DEATH; FLAVOR; FREEBASING; FREEZE DRYING; LAW SUIT; MARKETING; MORTALITY; REACTION ANALYSIS; REVIEW; TOBACCO; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE; TOBACCO INDUSTRY; ADVERTIZING; COMMERCIAL PHENOMENA; FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION; HUMAN; ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT; POSTMARKETING SURVEILLANCE; RECUMBENCY; RISK ASSESSMENT; SAFETY; STANDARD; STATISTICS; UNITED STATES;

ADVERTISING AS TOPIC; AMMONIA; COMMERCE; CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY; DECEPTION; FLAVORING AGENTS; HUMANS; NICOTINE; PRODUCT SURVEILLANCE, POSTMARKETING; RISK ASSESSMENT; TOBACCO; TOBACCO INDUSTRY; UNITED STATES; UNITED STATES FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION;

EID: 45549098702     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: 15410048     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2007.121657     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. "Ammonia," RJ Reynolds, 1982, Bates no. 500990999-1004, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/agk59d00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
2. "Tower Processes. Process 3: Expansion with Mixtures of Gaseous Ammonia and Carbon Dioxide," Philip Morris, May 1, 1970, Bates no. 2022232496-2498, http://tobaccodocuments.org/pm/2022232496-2498.html (accessed February 26, 2007).
3. Robert N. Proctor, "'Everyone Knew But No One Had Proof': Tobacco Industry Use of Medical History Expertise in US Courts, 1990-2002," Tobacco Control, 15 (2006): iv117-iv125.
4. Claude E. Teague Jr, "Modification of Tobacco Stem Materials by Treatment with Ammonia and Other Substances," RJ Reynolds, August 3, 1954, Bates no. 504175083-5084, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/gpt58d00 (accessed February 26, 2008);
5. trial testimony of David Eugene Townsend, Engle v. RJR Co, March 2, 1999, Bates no. townsendD030299PM, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ vny75a00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 25749-50.
6. R. B. Seligman, "The Use of Alkalis to Improve Smoke Flavor," Philip Morris, 1965, Bates no. 2026351158-1163, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/ tid/klk15e00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
7. F. H. Crayton and H. L. Spielberg, "Flavor Development: Effects of Ammonia - Odor and Smoke," Philip Morris, November 8, 1971, Bates no. 2028660823-0831, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/cuq74e00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 5.
8. William J. Casey and Thomas A. Perfetti, "Method to Improve Quality of Tobacco via Sugar-Ammonia Reactions," RJ Reynolds, March 19, 1980, Bates no. 504168866-8868, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/yrt58d00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
9. R. G. Armstrong et al., "U.S. Patent 3,771,533, Process for Puffing Tobacco," Philip Morris, November 13, 1977, Bates no. 2056171184-1196, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/prk36e00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
10. Trial testimony of Harold George Burnley Jr, Local No. 17 Bridge and Iron Workers Insurance Fund v. Philip Morris Inc, March 9, 1999, Bates no. burnleyH030999, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/hka85a00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 17.
11. Frank Friedman, "The Availability of Ammonia," Philip Morris, July 10, 1974, Bates no. 2022236810-6850, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ hrp45e00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 6.
12. Helmut Wakeham to Hugh Cullman, "The Question of Deleterious Substances in DAP-BL," Philip Morris, June 23, 1962, Bates no. 1000862896-2897, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/xct28e00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 1.
13. G.E. Inskeep, "Improvement of Flavor of Rolled Tobacco Stems with Diammonium Phosphate," Philip Morris, July 15, 1966, Bates no. 2026363161-3165, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/dez04e00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
14. H.O. Trimmer Jr to R. B. Seligman, "Analysis of TPM and Nicotine Delivery of Production DAP," Philip Morris, June 29, 1962, Bates no. 2050872548, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/haq45e00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
15. J.D. Hind and R. B. Seligman, "3,353,541, Tobacco Sheet Material," Philip Morris, November 21, 1967, Bates no. 2056136774-6783, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/itg26e00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
16. Glenn P. Moser, "Patent Specification 969,144: Process for Removing Nicotine from Tobacco Material," Philip Morris, September 9, 1964, Bates no. 2026535674-5678, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/jqe25e00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
17. "Issue Module Product Integrity," Philip Morris International, 1964 (est.), Bates no. 2501100284-0502, http://tobaccodocuments.org/pm/ 2501100284-0502.html (accessed February 26, 2007), 37-47.
18. Peggy Roberts to Barry Meier, Philip Morris, February 24, 1998, Bates no. 2076733606-3607, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/bbh85c00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 1.
19. Barry Meier, "Cigarette Maker Manipulated Nicotine, Its Records Suggest," New York Times, February 23, 1998.
20. H.J. Rand Cigarette Co., "An Investigation of Possible Cancer Producing Agents in Cigarette Smoke and their Elimination," Brown and Williamson, May 3, 1955, Bates no. 650340722-0759, http://legacy.library.ucsf. edu/tid/pfw14f00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
21. Helmut Wakeham, "Tobacco and Health - R&D Approach," Philip Morris, November 15, 1961, Bates no. 1005069026-9050, http://legacy.library. ucsf.edu/tid/fot38e00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
22. T.S. Osdene and E.W. Robb, "Smoke Chemistry Control," Philip Morris, November 19, 1965, Bates no. 1001897059-7208, http://legacy.library. ucsf.edu/tid/sbi54e00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 4.
23. See W. C. Hopkins, "Special Report: Project 33-1502 Designed Filler Cigarettes," Philip Morris, March 17, 1967, Bates no. 1000341549-1573, referencing French patent 1379831 from October 19, 1964, http://legacy.library. ucsf.edu/tid/fnu64e00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 1.
24. R. R. Johnson to E.P. Finch, "Current Chemistry Research at Southampton," Brown & Williamson, July 14, 1967, Bates no. 500012128-2142, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/usv24f00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 2.
25. Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes: America's Hundred Year Cigarette War, the Public Health, and the Unabashed Triumph of Philip Morris (New York: Knopf, 1996).
26. James F. Pankow et al., "Conversion of Nicotine in Tobacco Smoke to Its Volatile and Available Free-Base Form through the Action of Gaseous Ammonia," Environmental Science and Technology, 31(1997): 2428-33.
27. Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, 397.
28. Dorothy K. Hatsukami and Marian W. Fischman, "Crack Cocaine and Cocaine Hydrochloride: Are the Differences Myth or Reality?" JAMA, 276 (1996): 1580-88.
29. R.J. Sullivan and E. H. Hagen, "Psychotropic Substance-Seeking: Evolutionary Pathology or Adaptation?" Addiction, 97 (2002): 389-400.
30. Pankow et al., "Conversion of Nicotine," 2428.
31. "Nicotine Toxicity," RJ Reynolds, 1977, Bates no. 511194087-4114 (page 9), http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ggg53d00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
32. Peter P. Rowell and Lawrence A. Carr, "Historical Review of Nicotine's Actions," University of Louisville for Philip Morris, February 19, 1997, Bates no. 2505486601-6749, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ceb05c00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
33. G. Ferris Wayne, G. N. Connolly, and J. E. Henningfield, "Brand Differences of Free-base Nicotine Delivery in Cigarette Smoke: The View of the Tobacco Industry Documents," Tobacco Control, 15 (2006): 189-98.
34. F.P. Gullotta et al. to H. L. Spielberg, "When Nicotine Is Not Nicotine," Philip Morris, August 2, 1989, Bates no. 2025986931-6935, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/jcz74e00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 1.
35. H.J. Minnemeyer, "Continuation of Nicotine Augmentation Project (Conap)," Lorillard, February 9, 1977, Bates no. 00982446-2453, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/aut71e00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
36. Channing Robertson, in discussion with R. N. Proctor, April 2, 2007.
37. Robert K. Williams, "Progress During May-June on Project No. TE-5001: Development of a Cigarette with Increased Smoke pH," Liggett and Myers, July 13, 1971, Bates no. LG0295596-5600, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/ tid/fqf67a00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 1.
38. "Basic Data 1939-1945. 'The Bible,'" American Tobacco, n.d., Bates no. MNAT00887648-7930, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/kho31a00 (accessed February 26, 2008), 136;
39. compare S. Pawlowski and S. Woytowicz, "Method for the Refining of Smoking Tobacco," German Reich Patent No. 634104 (translation), August 18, 1936, Bates no. 85670246-0250, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vxl31e 00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
40. H.B. Parmele to A. Riefner, Lorillard, August 30, 1930, Bates no. 80690651-0654, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ocz21e00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 2.
41. See, for example, Aleksandr A. Shmuk, The Chemistry and Technology of Tobacco, ed. N. I. Gavrilov, trans. J. Lengy (Moscow: Pishchepromizdat, 1953), 7-12.
42. Allan M. Brandt, The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product That Defined America (New York: Basic Books, 2007).
43. Trimmer to Seligman, "Analysis of TPM and Nicotine Delivery of Production DAP," Philip Morris, Bates no. 2050872548, http:// tobaccodocuments.org/pm/2050872548.html (accessed February 26, 2007).
44. "Nicotine Delivery of Cigarettes Based on Total Sales," Philip Morris, 1963, Bates no. 2022242304, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/kpo53e00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
45. C.F. Gregory, "Observation of Free Nicotine Changes in Tobacco Smoke/#528," Brown and Williamson, January 4, 1980, Bates no. 510000667-0670, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/zds24f 00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 2.
46. J.D. Backhurst, "A Relation between the 'Strength' of a Cigarette and the 'Extractable Nicotine' in the Smoke," British American Tobacco, November 16, 1965, Bates no. 508102918-2941, http://tobaccodocuments.org/ product_design/NcSmBAT19651116.Rg.html (accessed February 26, 2007).
47. R.P. Newton and E.F. Litzinger, "Further Evaluations of UKELONTreated Cigarettes," Brown and Williamson, January 17, 1972, Bates no. 650105652-5663, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/bqq00f00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 5.
48. Hawkins, McCain & Blumenthal, Inc., "Project LTS," Brown and Williamson, June 20, 1977, Bates no. 660094371-4451, http://legacy.library. ucsf.edu/tid/wnj14f00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 10.
49. Gregory, "Observation of Free Nicotine Changes," 3.
50. R.C. Sproull, "New Idea No. 46," Philip Morris, January 14, 1957, Bates no. 2021627611, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/orj44e00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
51. H.B. Merritt and R. B. Seligman, "Idea No. 46: Tobacco Stems Soaked in Liquid Ammonia," Philip Morris, February 1961, Bates no. 2021627171, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vcu58e00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
52. Leo F. Meyer to R. N. Thomson, "Progress Report - Nicotine and Smoke pH," Philip Morris, March 31, 1966, Bates no. 2076733778-3783, http://tobaccodocuments.org/pm/2076733778-3783.html (accessed February 26, 2007), 1.
53. "Chart Listing Ammonia and pH Levels by Brand," Philip Morris, 1998, Bates no. 2063130886-0889, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/yhy04c00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
54. Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, 292-97.
55. R. R. Johnson, "Ammonia Technology Conference Minutes, Louisville, Kentucky, May 18-19," Brown and Williamson, June 12, 1989, Bates no. 583106691-6725, http://tobaccodocuments.org/bw/1442608.html (accessed February 26, 2007), 8.
56. J. H. Lauterbach and R. R. Johnson, "The Project Adverb Study of Marlboro KS," Brown and Williamson, October 10, 1989, Bates no. 570244005-4027, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/lvs20f00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
57. Trial testimony of Channing R. Robertson, Minnesota v. Philip Morris, Inc, February 4, 1998, Bates no. ROBERTSONC020498, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/mkn05a00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
58. "Ammonia," RJ Reynolds, 4; compare the deposition of William Anthony Farone, September 22, 1999, for NERI v. RJR Tobacco, Bates no. FARONEW092299, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/nxz75a00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 26.
59. "Technology: Ammoniation," RJ Reynolds, 1981, Bates no. 509018864-8865A, http://tobaccodocuments.org/rjr/509018864-8865A.html (accessed February 26, 2007).
60. Claude E. Teague Jr, "Implications and Activities Arising from Correlation of Smoke pH with Nicotine Impact, Other Smoke Qualities, and Cigarette Sales," October 2, 1973, Bates no. 509314122-4154, http://tobaccodocuments.org/rjr/509314122-4154_D1.html (accessed February 26, 2007), 509314126.
61. Frank G. Colby to R. A. Blevins Jr, "Cigarette Concept to Assure RJR a Larger Segment of the Youth Market," December 4, 1973, Bates no. 500529772-9773, http://tobaccodocuments.org/rjr/500529772-9773.html (accessed February 26, 2007), 1 (emphasis in original).
62. Ian Brown and Chris Jenkins, "Optimizing Ammonia at BAT: Project Amtech," n.d., Bates no. 582104744-4748, http://tobaccodocuments.org/bw/ 960067.html (accessed February 26, 2007), 582104746.
63. Williams, "Progress During May-June."
64. Johnson, "Ammonia Technology Conference."
65. "Second Annual Ammonia Technology Conference: Commercialization of Ammonia Technology, Louisville, Kentucky," Brown and Williamson, June 11-13, 1990, Bates no. 570353434-3770, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ rys20f00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 3.
66. Johnson, "Ammonia Technology Conference."
67. "Second Annual Ammonia Technology Conference," 3.
68. E.E. Kornhurst, "PM's Global Strategy: Marlboro Product Technology," Brown and Williamson, October 26, 1992, Bates no. 569203392-3628, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/hus20f00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 45.
69. Deposition of William Anthony Farone, Ph.D., Labelle v. Philip Morris Inc, July 20, 2000, Bates no. faronew072000, http://tobaccodocuments.org/ datta/FARONEW072000.html (accessed February 26, 2007), 230.
70. Alix M. Freedman, "'Impact Booster': Tobacco Firm Shows How Ammonia Spurs Delivery of Nicotine," Wall Street Journal, December 28, 1995.
71. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, "Nicotine in Cigarettes and Smokeless Tobacco Is a Drug and These Products Are Nicotine Delivery Devices under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act: Jurisdictional Determination 61," Federal Register, August 28, 1996, 44970-75.
72. Pankow et al., "Conversion of Nicotine," 2429.
73. Deposition of James F. Pankow, Ph.D., Washington v. American Tobacco Co, April 2, 1998, Bates no. pankowj040298, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/ tid/yyy75a00 (accessed February 26, 2007);
74. "Possible Questions to Pose to Professor William H. Glaze, ed. of the Journal of Environmental Science and Technology," Philip Morris, November 1996, Bates no. 2065349638-9639, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ qpu63c00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
75. Jeffrey I. Seeman, Jay A. Fournier, and John B. Paine III, "Thermal Properties of Nonprotonated and Protonated Nicotine. The Contrast of Nicotine's Transfer to Smoke with the Mechanism of Cocaine 'Freebasing,'" Philip Morris, November 1998, Bates no. 2063664635-4657, http://tobaccodocuments.org/ product_design/2063664635-4657.html (accessed February 26, 2007).
76. Smoking and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General (Washington, D.C: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1979), 14-85.
77. Meyer to Thomson, "Progress Report," 1.
78. "The Effects of Cigarette Smoke 'pH' on Nicotine Delivery and Subjective Evaluations," Philip Morris, June 1994, Bates no. 2025986551-6553, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/osq74e00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
79. Tobacco Institute, "Tobacco Institute Statement in Response to FDA Commissioner, David Kessler," June 21, 1994, Bates no. TIMN0327789-7791, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/tvr52f00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 2.
80. "Ingredients Added to Tobacco in the Manufacture of Cigarettes by the Six Major American Cigarette Companies," Brown and Williamson, April 12, 1994, Bates no. 606000841-0889, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/aii93f00 (accessed February 26, 2007).
81. RJ Reynolds, "Ammonia," 5.
82. Seeman, Fournier, and Paine, "Thermal Properties," 14-15.
83. Testimony of Harold George Burnley Jr, 17.
84. Deposition of William Anthony Farone, Ph.D., ARCH [BARNES] v. American Tobacco Co, August 28, 1997, Bates no. faronew082897, http:// tobaccodocuments.org/datta/FARONEW082897.html (accessed February 26, 2007), 34.
85. Deposition of James F. Pankow, 217.
86. "Second Annual Ammonia Technology Conference," 3 (emphasis in original).
87. William A. Farone, e-mail and telephone communication with Terrell Stevenson, November 17, 2005.
88. Jeffrey Wigand, e-mail communication with Terrell Stevenson, November 8, 2005.
89. "Effects of Cigarette Smoke 'pH.'"
90. David A. Kessler, A Question of Intent: A Great American Battle with a Deadly Industry (New York: Public Affairs, 2001).
91. Farone, e-mail and telephone communication, November 17, 2005.
92. Gladys Kessler, "Final Opinion," USA v. Philip Morris USA et al., August 17, 2006, https://ecf.dcd.uscourts.gov/cgi-bin/show_public_doc? 1999cv2496-5732 (accessed February 26, 2007).
93. Claude Teague, "Proposal of a New, Consumer-Oriented Business Strategy for RJR Tobacco Company," RJ Reynolds, September 19, 1969, Bates no. 500915701-5719, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/drr59d00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 9.
94. Hiram R. Hanmer to Mrs. Keith Shipley Sutton III, American Tobacco, October 14, 1955, Bates no. 950738681-8682, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ fbv51a00 (accessed February 26, 2007), 2.
95. Teague, "Implications and Activities," 2.
96. Johnson, "Ammonia Technology Conference," 11.
97. Gregory N. Connolly et al., "Trends in Smoke Nicotine Yield and Relationship to Design Characteristics Among Popular U.S. Cigarette Brands," Harvard School of Public Health, 2007, http://www.hsph.harvard. edu/nicotine/trends.pdf (accessed January 1, 2007).
98. R. N. Proctor, "Tobacco and the Global Lung Cancer Epidemic," Nature Reviews Cancer, 1 (2001): 82-87.
99. Charles R. Green and Alan Rodgman, "The Tobacco Chemists' Research Conference: A Half Century Forum for Advances in Analytical Methodology of Tobacco and Its Products," RJ Reynolds, June 26, 1996, Bates no. 525445600-5772, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/qzt82a00/pdf (accessed February 26, 2007), 7.
100. Robert N. Proctor, The Nazi War on Cancer (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999).