Epidemic typhus

The Lancet Infectious Diseases

Volumn 8, Issue 7, 2008, Pages 417-426

  Bechah, Yassina ^a   Capo, Christian ^a   Mege, Jean Louis ^a   Raoult, Didier ^a  

^a AIX MARSEILLE UNIVERSITÉ   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; CHLORAMPHENICOL; CHLORPHENOTANE; CIPROFLOXACIN; DNA VACCINE; DOXYCYCLINE; INSECTICIDE; MALATHION; PERMETHRIN; TETRACYCLINE; TYPHUS VACCINE;

AEROSOL; ANTIBODY TITER; BACTERIAL INFECTION; BIOLOGICAL WARFARE; CLINICAL FEATURE; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE CARRIER; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; EPIDEMIC; HUMAN; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; INFECTION CONTROL; INFESTATION; LABORATORY TEST; LOUSE; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REAL TIME POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; REPEATED DRUG DOSE; REVIEW; RICKETTSIA PROWAZEKII; RICKETTSIOSIS; SEROLOGY; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; TERRORISM; TYPHUS; WESTERN BLOTTING;

ANIMALS; DISEASE OUTBREAKS; HUMANS; INSECT VECTORS; LICE INFESTATIONS; PEDICULUS; TYPHUS, EPIDEMIC LOUSE-BORNE;

EID: 45449110044     PISSN: 14733099     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(08)70150-6     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. da Rocha Lima H. Evidence of R prowazekii in patients with epidemic typhus. Munch Med Wochenschr 1 (1917) 33
2. Ricketts H. A micro-organism which apparently has a specific relationship to Rocky Mountain spotted fever. JAMA 5 (1909) 379
3. Raoult D., and Roux V. Rickettsioses as paradigms of new or emerging infectious diseases. Clin Microbiol Rev 10 (1997) 694-719
4. Hechemy K., Avsic-Zupanc T., Childs J., and Raoult D. Rickettsiology: present and future directions: preface. Ann N Y Acad Sci 990 (2003) 17-20
5. Perine P., Chandler B., Krause D., et al. A clinico-epidemiological study of epidemic typhus in Africa. Clin Infect Dis 14 (1992) 1149-1158
6. Zinsser H. Rats, lice, and history (1935), George Routledge & Sons, London
7. Raoult D., Woodward T., and Dumler J. The history of epidemic typhus. Infect Dis Clin North Am 18 (2004) 127-140
8. Papagrigorakis M., Yapijakis C., Synodinos P., and Baziotopoulou-Valavani E. DNA examination of ancient dental pulp incriminates typhoid fever as a probable cause of the Plague of Athens. Int J Infect Dis 4 (2006) 334-335
9. Hansen W., and Freney J. Epidemic typhus, its transmission and the discovery of the etiologic agent. Lyon Pharmaceutique 47 (1996) 130-138 (in French).
10. Woodward T. Typhus verdict in American history. Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc 82 (1970) 1-8
11. Cowan G. Rickettsial diseases: the typhus group of fevers-a review. Postgrad Med J 76 (2000) 269-272
12. Gelston A., and Jones T. Typhus fever: report of an epidemic in New York city in 1847. J Infect Dis 136 (1977) 813-821
13. Hardy A. Urban famine or urban crisis? Typhus in the Victorian city. Med Hist 32 (1988) 401-425
14. Raoult D., Dutour O., Houhamdi L., et al. Evidence for louse-transmitted diseases in soldiers of Napoleon's Grand Army in Vilnius. J Infect Dis 193 (2006) 112-120
15. Lutwick L. Brill-Zinsser disease. Lancet 357 (2001) 1198-1200
16. Weiss K. The role of rickettsioses in history. In: Walker D. (Ed). Biology of rickettsial diseases (1988), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 1-14
17. Zinsser H. Varieties of typhus virus and the epidemiology of the American form of European typhus fever (Brill's disease). Am J Hyg 20 (1934) 513-532
18. Patterson K. Typhus and its control in Russia, 1870-1940. Med Hist 37 (1993) 361-381
19. Fan M., Walker D., Yu S., and Liu Q. Epidemiology and ecology of rickettsial diseases in the People's Republic of China. Rev Infect Dis 9 (1987) 823-840
20. Romero A., Zeissig O., España D., and Rizzo L. Exanthematic typhus in Guatemala. Bol Oficina Sanit Panam 83 (1977) 223-236 (in Spanish).
21. Ackley A., and Peter W. Indigenous acquisition of epidemic typhus in the eastern United States. Southern Med J 74 (1981) 245-247
22. Agger W., and Songsiridej V. Epidemic typhus acquired in Wisconsin. Wis Med J 84 (1985) 27-30
23. Bozeman F., Masiello S., Williams M., and Elisberg B. Epidemic typhus rickettsiae isolated from flying squirrels. Nature 255 (1975) 545-547
24. McDade J., Shepard C., Redus M., Newhouse V., and Smith J. Evidence of Rickettsia prowazekii infections in the United States. Am J Trop Med Hyg 29 (1980) 277-284
25. Russo P., Mendelson D., Etkind P., Garber M., Berardi V., and Gilfillan R. Epidemic typhus (Rickettsia prowazekii) in Massachusetts: evidence of infection. N Engl J Med 304 (1981) 1166-1168
26. Tarizzo M. Geographic distribution of louse-borne diseases. International symposium on the control of lice and louse-borne diseases. Seminal publication edn. (1972), PAHO-WHO, Washington, DC 50-55
27. Bise G., and Coninx R. Epidemic typhus in a prison in Burundi. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 91 (1997) 133-134
28. Raoult D., Ndihokubwayo J., Tissot-Dupont H., et al. Outbreak of epidemic typhus associated with trench fever in Burundi. Lancet 352 (1998) 353-358
29. Raoult D., Roux V., Ndihokubwaho J., et al. Jail fever (epidemic typhus) outbreak in Burundi. Emerg Infect Dis 3 (1997) 357-360
30. Tarasevich I., Rydkina E., and Raoult D. Epidemic typhus in Russia. Lancet 352 (1998) 1151
31. Raoult D., Birtles R., Montoya M., Perez E., Tissot-Dupont H., and Guerra H. Survey of louse-associated diseases among rural Andean communities in Peru: prevalence of epidemic typhus, trench fever, and relapsing fever. Clin Infect Dis 29 (1999) 434-436
32. Mokrani K., Fournier P., Dalichaouche M., Tebbal S., Aouati A., and Raoult D. Reemerging threat of epidemic typhus in Algeria. J Clin Microbiol 42 (2004) 3898-3900
33. Niang M., Brouqui P., and Raoult D. Epidemic typhus imported from Algeria. Emerg Infect Dis 5 (1999) 716-718
34. Brouqui P., Stein A., Tissot D.H., et al. Ectoparasitism and vector-borne diseases in 930 homeless people from Marseilles. Medicine (Baltimore) 84 (2005) 61-68
35. Fournier P., Ndihokubwayo J., Guidran J., Kelly P., and Raoult D. Human pathogens in body and head lice. Emerg Infect Dis 8 (2002) 1515-1518
36. Price W. Studies on the interepidemic survival of louse borne epidemic typhus fever. J Bacteriol 69 (1955) 106-107
37. Stein A., Purgus R., Olmer M., and Raoult D. Brill-Zinsser disease in France. Lancet 353 (1999) 1936
38. Turcinov D., Kuzman I., and Herendic B. Failure of azithromycin in treatment of Brill-Zinsser disease. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 44 (2000) 1737-1738
39. Zanetti G., Francioli P., Tagan D., Paddock C., and Zaki S. Imported epidemic typhus. Lancet 352 (1998) 1709
40. Green C., Fishbein D., and Gleiberman I. Brill-Zinsser: still with us. JAMA 264 (1990) 1811-1812
41. Reilly P., and Kalinske R. Brill-Zinsser disease in North America. West J Med 133 (1980) 338-340
42. Portnoy J., Mendelson J., and Clecner B. Brill-Zinsser disease: report of a case in Canada. Can Med Assoc J 111 (1974) 166
43. Luxemburger C., Rigal J., and Nosten F. Health care in refugee camps. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 92 (1998) 129-130
44. Atlas R. Biological weapons pose challenge for microbiology community. ASM News 64 (1998) 383-389
45. Banegura F., Munube G., Senyakazana A., and Nzaro E. An epidemic of typhus in Ankole, Uganda, 1975-1976. East Afr Med J 60 (1983) 55-59
46. Gross L. How Charles Nicolle of the Pasteur Institute discovered that epidemic typhus is transmitted by lice: reminiscences from my years at the Pasteur Institute in Paris. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93 (1996) 10539-10540
47. Andersson J., and Andersson S. A century of typhus, lice and Rickettsia. Res Microbiol 151 (2000) 143-150
48. Raoult D., and Roux V. The body louse as a vector of reemerging human diseases. Clin Infect Dis 29 (1999) 888-911
49. Houhamdi L., Fournier P., Fang R., Lepidi H., and Raoult D. An experimental model of human body louse infection with Rickettsia prowazekii. J Infect Dis 186 (2002) 1639-1646
50. Wisseman Jr. C. Observations on global aspects of louse-borne typhus: transmission and potential. International symposium on the control of lice and louse-borne diseases. Seminal publication edn. (1972), PAHO-WHO, Washington, DC 60-66
51. Brezina R., Murray E., Tarizzo M., and Bogel K. Rickettsiae and rickettsial diseases. Bull World Health Organ 49 (1973) 433-442
52. Weiss E. The biology of rickettsiae. Annu Rev Microbiol 36 (1982) 345-370
53. Ormsbee R. The hypothesis of extrahuman reservoirs of Rickettsia prowazekii. International symposium on the control of lice and louse-borne diseases. Seminal publication edn. (1972), PAHO-WHO, Washington, DC 104-108
54. Ormsbee R., Hoogstraal H., Yousser L., Hildebrandt P., and Atalla W. Evidence for extra-human epidemic typhus in the wild animals of Egypt. J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol 1 (1968) 1-6
55. Burgdorfer W. Possible extrahuman reservoirs of Rickettsia prowazekii: ticks. International symposium on the control of lice and louse-borne diseases. Seminal publication edn. (1972), PAHO-WHO, Washington, DC 109-112
56. Reiss-Gutfreund R. The isolation of Rickettsia prowazeki and mooseri from unusual sources. Am J Trop Med Hyg 15 (1966) 943-949
57. Philip C., Lackman D., Bell E., and Hughes L. Laboratory identification of typhus isolated by Reiss-Gutfreund from Ethiopian livestock ticks. Am J Trop Med Hyg 15 (1966) 950-953
58. Medina-Sanchez A., Bouyer D., Cantara-Rodriguez V., et al. Detection of a typhus group Rickettsia in Amblyomma ticks in the state of Nuevo Leon, Mexico. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1063 (2005) 327-332
59. McDade J., and Wisseman Jr. C. Studies of proposed extrahuman reservoir of epidemic typhus. International symposium on the control of lice and louse-borne diseases. Seminal publication edn. (1972), PAHO-WHO, Washington, DC 113-116
60. Duma R., Sonenshine D., Bozeman F., et al. Epidemic typhus in the United States associated with flying squirrels. JAMA 245 (1981) 2318-2323
61. Sonenshine D., Bozeman F., Williams M., et al. Epizootiology of epidemic typhus (Rickettsia prowazekii) in flying squirrels. Am J Trop Med Hyg 27 (1978) 339-349
62. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemic typhus associated with flying squirrels-United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 31 (1982) 561-562
63. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemic typhus-Georgia. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 33 (1984) 618-619
64. McDade J. Flying squirrels and their ectoparasites: disseminators of epidemic typhus. Parasitol Today 3 (1987) 85-87
65. In: Wolbach S., Todd J., and Palfrey F. (Eds). The etiology and pathology of typhus (1922), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
66. Friedmann I., Frohlich A., and Wright A. Epidemic typhus fever and hearing loss: a histological study (Hallpike collection of temporal bone sections). J Laryngol Otol 107 (1993) 275-283
67. Saah A. Rickettsia prowasekii (epidemic or louse-borne typhus). In: Mandell G., Bennett J., and Dolin R. (Eds). Principles and practice of infectious diseases (2000), Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, PA 2050-2053
68. Brill N. An acute infectious disease of unknown origin. A clinical study based on 221 cases. Am J Med Sci 139 (1910) 484
69. Murray E., and Snyder J. Brill's disease. II. Etiology. Am J Hyg 53 (1951) 22-32
70. Desruisseaux M., Nagajyothi F., Trujillo M., Tanowitz H., and Scherer P. Adipocyte, adipose tissue, and infectious disease. Infect Immun 75 (2007) 1066-1078
71. Neyrolles O., Hernandez-Pando R., Pietri-Rouxel F., et al. Is adipose tissue a place for Mycobacterium tuberculosis persistence?. PLoS ONE 1 (2006) e43
72. Renesto P., Samson L., Ogata H., et al. Identification of two putative rickettsial adhesins by proteomic analysis. Res Microbiol 157 (2006) 605-612
73. Krause D., Winkler H., and Wood D. Cloning and expression of the Rickettsia prowazekii ADP/ATP translocator in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82 (1985) 3015-3019
74. Walker D. Pathology and pathogenesis of the vasculotropic rickettsioses. In: Walker D. (Ed). Biology of rickettsial disease (1988), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 115-138
75. Bechah Y., Capo C., Grau G., Raoult D., and Mege J. Infection of endothelial cells with virulent Rickettsia prowazekii increases the transmigration of leukocytes. J Infect Dis 197 (2008) 142-147
76. Kaplan J., and Schonberger L. The sensitivity of various serologic tests in the diagnosis of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Am J Trop Med Hyg 35 (1986) 840-844
77. Ormsbee R., Peacock M., Philip R., et al. Serologic diagnosis of epidemic typhus fever. Am J Epidemiol 105 (1977) 261-271
78. La Scola B., and Raoult D. Laboratory diagnosis of rickettsioses: current approaches to the diagnosis of old and new rickettsial diseases. J Clin Microbiol 35 (1997) 2715-2727
79. Fenollar F., and Raoult D. Diagnosis of rickettsial diseases using samples dried on blotting paper. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 6 (1999) 483-488
80. Ormsbee R., Peacock M., Philip R., et al. Antigenic relationships between the typhus and spotted fever groups of rickettsiae. Am J Epidemiol 108 (1978) 53-59
81. Raoult D., and Dasch G. Immunoblot cross-reactions among Rickettsia, Proteus spp and Legionella spp in patients with Mediterranean spotted fever. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 11 (1995) 13-18
82. Eremeeva M., Balayeva N., and Raoult D. Serological response of patients suffering from primary and recrudescent typhus: comparison of complement fixation reaction, Weil-Felix test, microimmunofluorescence, and immunoblotting. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1 (1994) 318-324
83. La Scola B., Rydkina L., Ndihokubwayo J., Vene S., and Raoult D. Serological differentiation of murine typhus and epidemic typhus using cross-adsorption and western blotting. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 7 (2000) 612-616
84. Birg M., La Scola B., Roux V., Brouqui P., and Raoult D. Isolation of Rickettsia prowazekii from blood by shell vial cell culture. J Clin Microbiol 37 (1999) 3722-3724
85. Roux V., and Raoult D. Body lice as tools for diagnosis and surveillance of reemerging diseases. J Clin Microbiol 37 (1999) 596-599
86. Jiang J., Temenak J., and Richards A. Real-time PCR duplex assay for Rickettsia prowazekii and Borrelia recurrentis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 990 (2003) 302-310
87. Svraka S., Rolain J., Bechah Y., Gatabazi J., and Raoult D. Rickettsia prowazekii and real-time polymerase chain reaction. Emerg Infect Dis 12 (2006) 428-432
88. Nicolle C. The destiny of infectious diseases (1934), Lafayette, Paris
89. Krause D., Perine P., McDade J., and Awoke S. Treatment of louse-borne typhus fever with chloramphenicol, tetracycline or doxycycline. East Afr Med J 52 (1975) 421-427
90. Woodward W. Typhus, typhoid and TEW. Md Med J 38 (1989) 813-816
91. Perine P., Krause D., Awoke S., and McDade J. Single-dose doxycycline treatment of louse-borne relapsing fever and epidemic typhus. Lancet 2 (1974) 742-744
92. Raoult D., and Drancourt M. Antimicrobial therapy of rickettsial diseases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 35 (1991) 2457-2462
93. Maurin M., and Raoult D. Rickettsia prowazekii (epidemic typhus and Brill-Zinsser disease). In: Yu V., Weber R., and Raoult R. (Eds). Antimicrobial therapy and vaccine (2002), Apple Trees Production, New York 893-898
94. Huys J., Kayhigi J., Freyens P., and Berghe G. Single-dose treatment of epidemic typhus with doxycyline. Chemotherapy 18 (1973) 314-317
95. Woodward T. Rickettsial vaccines with emphasis on epidemic typhus. Initial report of an old vaccine trial. S Afr Med J suppl (1986) 73-76
96. Fox J., Everritt M., Robinson T., and Conwell D. Immunisation of man against epidemic typhus by infection with avirulent Rickettsia prowazekii (strain E). Am J Hyg 59 (1954) 74-88
97. Fox J., Jordan M., and Gelland H. Immunisation of man against epidemic typhus by infection with avirulent Rickettsia prowazekii strain E: IV. Persistence of immunity and a note as to differing complement-fixation antigen requirements in post infection and post vaccination sera. J Immunol 79 (1957) 348-354
98. Cox H. Use of yolk sac of developing chick embryo as medium for growing rickettsiae of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and typhus groups. Public Health Rep 53 (1938) 2241-2247
99. Durand P., and Giroud P. Vaccine assays against historic typhus using formalin-killed Rickettsia (pulmonary strains). CR Acad Sci 210 (1940) 493-496 (in French).
100. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Typhus vaccine. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 27 (1978) 189
101. Coker C., Majid M., and Radulovic S. Development of Rickettsia prowazekii DNA vaccine: cloning strategies. Ann N Y Acad Sci 990 (2003) 557-564
102. Bechah Y., Capo C., Mege J., and Raoult D. Rickettsial diseases: from Rickettsia-arthropod relationships to pathophysiology and animal models. Future Microbiol 3 (2008) 223-236
103. Bechah Y., Capo C., Grau G., Raoult D., and Mege J. A murine model of infection with Rickettsia prowazekii: implications for pathogenesis of epidemic typhus. Microbes Infect 7 (2007) 898-906