Central bureaucracy and the restriction of education in early nineteenth-century Finland

Scandinavian Journal of History

Volumn 21, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 201-220

  Konttinen, Esa ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ   (Finland)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 44949215790     PISSN: 03468755     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03468759608579325     Document Type: Article

References (90)

1. Kaarlo Wirilander, "Herrasväkeä. Suomen säätylistö 1721-1870, Historiallisia tutkimuksia 93 (Helsinki, 1974); p. 440
2. Roberta Selleck, The Language Issue in Finnish Political Discussion: 1809-1863 (PhD Thesis. Radcliffe College. Cambridge, Mass., 1961), p. 22
3. About the roots and the development of the wide class of independent peasants in Finland. see Eino Jutikkala "'Suurmaanomistuksen historiallinen kehitys Suomessa", in Jutikkala and Nikander. eds. Suomen kartanot ja suurtilat (Helsinki, 1938), pp. 13-52
4. Jutikkala. Suomen talonpojan historia (Helsinki. 1958), p. 138.
5. For its social significance, see Risto Alapuro. State and Revolution in Finland (Berkeley, 1988), pp. 19-21, 91
6. for a comparative perspective, see Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London, 1980). pp. 173-191
7. Björn Asker sees that in the late 17th century Sweden a "new class" of officials succeeded in securing its position in relation to the "old class" of landowners, through absolutism. See Asker, "Aristocracy and Autocracy in Seventeenth-century Sweden: The Decline of the Aristocracy within the Civil Administration before 1680", Scandinavian Journal of History 15 (1990), pp. 89-95
8. Proportions: Wirilander, Herrasväktä, pp. 185, 191. According to Wirilander (ibid., p. 445). the proportion of the nobility in different offices in the second half of the 18th century varied over tenyear periods as follows: military offices (administrative ones included): 68-81%; administration of justice: 19-40%; other civil offices: 4-7%
9. The term social closure, Schliessung, was coined by Max Weber, Wirtschaft and Gesellschaft. Grundris der verstehenden Soziologie (Tübingen, 1985), e.g., pp. 23. 201-203, 577
10. see Lionell Jeffrey Berlant. Profession and Monopoly (Berkeley, 1975), pp. 43-50
11. About later formulations in the sociology of social classes, Anthony Giddens, The Class Structure of Advanced Societies (London, 1973)
12. Frank Parkin. Class Inequality and Political Order (New York, 1971)
13. and Parkin, Marxism and Class Theory. A Bourgeoisie Critique (London, 1979)
14. Randall Collins, The Credential Society. A Historical Sociology of Education and Stratification (London, 1979)
15. Raymond Murphy, Social Closure. The Theory of Monopolization and Exclusion (Oxford, 1988). In the sociology of professions, the concept has been made use of by, e.g., Berlant. Profession and Monopoly
16. Noel and Jose Parry, The Rise of the Medical Profession (London, 1976)
17. Gerald Larkin, Occupational Monopoly and Modern Medicine (London and New York, 1983)
18. see also Magali Sarfatti Larson, The Rise of Professionalism. A Sociological Analysis (Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1977)
19. Refererred works: Wirilander, Herrasväkeä, pp. 315-355
20. Heikki Waris, "Yliopistososiaalisen kohoamisen väylä nä. Tilastollinen tutkimus säätykierrosta Suomessa 1810-1867", Historiallinen arkisto 47, (Helsinki, 1940) pp. 232-233
21. There are a number of careful and informative studies about issues of education and educational policy in early 19th century Finland such as Waris. Yliopisto, op. cit.: J. T. Hanho, Suomen oppikoululaitoksen historia. Toinen osa 1809-1872 (Helsinki, 1955)
22. Herkko Ojala, "Ensipolven akateemisen sivistyneistön muodostuminen Suomessa vuosina 1859-1899", Studia Historica Jyvaeskylaensis I (Jyväskylä, 1962)
23. Hanho, Oppikoululaitoksen historia II; Ojala, Ensi polven, pp. 338-339, 341
24. Vuorela, Opetusministeriön historia 2, pp. 63, 127-128), but the class relationships are not systematically explored
25. See Roberta Selleck, The Language Issue; Alapuro, State and Revolution
26. John Strömberg, "Vlioppilaat", in M. Klinge, R. Knapas, R. Knapas, A. Leikola and J. Strömberg. Keisarillinen Aleksanterin Yliopisto 1808-1917, 277-332. (Helsinki, 1989), pp. 277-320
27. For the social composition of the Senate, see K. \V. Rauhala, Keisarillinen Suomen senaatti 1809-1909. Edellinen osa vuodet 1809-1859 (Helsinki, 1915), p. 33
28. Eino Jutikkala, "Ståndsamhällets upplösning i Finland", Turun historiallinen arkisto 12, (Turku, 1956), pp. 113-143, 115-116
29. Anna-Liisa Mikkeli. Aatelin osuus Suomen suuriruhtinaskunnan virkamiehistöstä 19. vuosisadalla (Helsinki. 1954. unpublished), p. 42, Table 1, p. 43.
30. For international comparison, see Jerome Blum. The End of the Rural Order in Rural Europe (New York, 1978), pp. 198, 203
31. For the basis and the nature of the autonomy of the Grand Duchy, see Alapuro, State and Revolution, pp. 19-26, 90-91
32. For the roots of the bureaucratic orientation of the Finnish nobility, see Selleck. The Language Issue, pp. 41-42
33. Sten Carlsson, "Suomen virkamiehet ja Ruotsin valtakunta 1700-luvulla", in Sven-Erik Åström, Yrjö Blomstedt and Ilkka Hakalehto, (eds.). Näkökulmia menneisyyteen (Porvoo, 1967). p. 158 Table lb. Descriptions of the inefficiency of the bureaucracy in the first years: Carl von Bonsdorff. "Statsmän och dignitären", Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Litteratursällskapet i Finland CLIX (Helsingfors, 1921), p. 8
34. Rauhala, Suomen Senaatti I, pp. 82-83: Hanho. Suomen oppikoululaitoksen historia 2. p. 4
35. On administrative education in Russia, see Hans-Joachim Torke, "Administration and Bureaucracy in 19th-century Russia: The Empire and the Finnish Case", in Seppo Tiihonen. (ed.). Institutions and Bureaucrats in the History of Administration. Studies on Administrative History (Helsinki 1989). pp. 31-42
36. Richard S. Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness (Chicago. 1976). In the early years of the Grand Duchy there were complaints about the low status of those who officiated in the name of the Emperor (see Rauhala, Suomen Senaatti I, p. 144). The prestige of the bureaucracy required men of prestige in the administration. University education could fulfil this need. And. as it will be suggested later, the nobility as a status group needed new symbols of exclusiveness. University education could function as a new source of status. It was also partly in the status context that there emerged a custom of elevating high bureaucrats to the nobility. The high posts that automatically brought the ennoblement were resident of the Senate, resident of the Court. president of the university, membership of the Economic Department of the Senate, the office of Governor, and, in certain cases, also some other offices of Court and the university - see P.-O. von Törne. Finlands Riddarhus 1818-1918 (Helsingfors, 1926), p. 142. Elevations were symbolic by nature: they no longer gave legal superiority to the owners of the patents of the nobility. They were rather an expression of the status project and functioned as rewards that also linked high officials as well as other members of the elite more closely together; similar elevations had occurred also in the 18th century - see Jutikkala "Johtavat säädyt", in Gunnar Suolahti et al., (ed.). Suomen Kulttuurihistoria II (Jyväskylä, 1934), 45. They also led to a strengthening of the bureaucratic ethos in the First Estate (von Törne, Finlands Riddarhus, pp. 138-140)
37. J. T. Hanho, Oppikoululaitoksen historia II, p. 105
38. About examinations, see Matti Klinge, "Yliopisto ja virkamieskoulu", in Klinge et al. Keisarillinen Aleksanterinyliopisto, pp. 333-417
39. rEic Anthoni, Jacob Tengström och stiftsstyrelsen i Åbo stift 1808-1832, II (Helsingfors, 1828). On the social roots of the legal education as education of officials, see Konttinen, Professionalization as Status Adaptation, pp. 505-510
40. Seppo Tiihonen and Paula Tiihonen, Suomen hallintohistoria (Helsinki, 1984), pp. 85-89
41. Eero Backman, "Virkamiehistön asema ja yhteiskunnallinen kehitys", Oikeus VIII (1979), pp. 187-202.
42. For rank order, see Gabriel Thulin, "Om rang för statens Ämets(tjänste)män förhållandet mellan ämbets(tjänste) rang och hov rang", Nordisk administrativ tidskrift XXVII (1946), p. 2
43. Antti Inkinen, "Virka-arvot ja arvonimet Suomessa ennen itsenäisyyden aikaa", Historiallinen arkisto 54 (1953), pp. 210-212
44. '8 For the relationship of the education and the Finnish nobility, see Gunnar Suolahti, "Tilastollisia tietoja Turun Akatemian ylioppilaista", Historiallinen aikakauskirja I (1903). p. 84
45. Suolahti, "Papisto", in Suomen Kulttuurihistoria II (Jyväskylä, 1934), p. 36
46. Johannes Björklund, Suomen papisto 1800-luvulla erityisesti silmällä pitäen pappistarvetta ja sen tyydyttä mismahdollisuuksia. Suomen kirkkohistoriallisen seuran toimituksia XLII (Helsinki, 1939), p. 28
47. Eva-Christina Mäkeläinen, Säätytäisten seuraelämä ja tapakulttuuri 1700-luvun jälkipuoliskolla Turussa, Viipurissa ja Savon kartanoalueilla. Historiallisia tutkimuksia 86 (Helsinki, 1972), p. 78
48. For the relationship between higher education and the clergy, see also Klinge, "Perustaminen ja tarkoitus", in Klinge, Knapas, Leikola, Strömberg, Kuninkaallinen Turun Akalemia 1640-1808 (Helsinki, 1987), pp. 13-107
49. On the number of the members in the professions, see Konttinen, Perinttisesti moderniin, p. 173
50. Matti Peltonen, "Valtiollinen yö? Ajatuksia autonomian ajan alun valtionrakentumisesta'". in Kari Pitkänen, (ed.), Näkokulmia kriisien ja konfliktien syntyyn, merkitykseen ja ḱontrolliin (Helsinki. 1987), pp. 119-120
51. Peltonen, "A bourgeoisie Bureaucracy? The new Mentality of the Finnish Aristocracy at the Beginning of the Period of the Autonomy", in Matti Peltonen, (ed.). State. Culture and the Bourgeoisie. Aspects of the Peculiarity of the Finnish. Publications of the the Research I 'nil for Contemporary Culture, nr. 13. (University of Jyväskyla, 1989), pp. 41-42. The estimation of the number of students is based on Vilhelm Lagus, Åbo Akadetnis studentmalrikel. Skrifter utgifna ar svenska litteratur sällskapet i Finland (Helsingfors, 1890 and supplement 1906). These numbers may seem very modest. We must remember, however, the small size of the nobility. A few dozen noblemen accounted for a notable proportion of the whole age cohort of the First Estate
52. Alexander I was praised as the "greatest philanthropist" and, for instance, a medal was struck in honour of the Emperor - see von Bonsdorff, Kejsar Alexander, pp. 237-249
53. For a discussion on Finnish noble officers in the Russian army, see J. E. O. Screen, The Entry of the Finnish Officers into Russian Military Service 1809-1917 (PhD thesis, University of London, 1976), pp. 287-289
54. Mikkeli, Aatelin osuus, pp. 49, 52, 54
55. Jutikkala, Säätyvaltiopäivien, p. 77
56. Lagus, Studentmatrikel
57. For closure interests, see Sven-Erik Åström, "Ståndsamhället och universitet. Universitetsbesöken som socialt fenomen i Österbotten 1722-1808", Bidrag till kännedom af Finlands natur och folk. utgifna av Finska vetenskaps-societen, Häft 95 (Helsingfors. 1950), pp. 38-41
58. Wirilandcr. Herrasväkä. pp. 321. 334
59. For the weakening of the position of the nobility, see Backman, Virkamiehistön asema, pp. 194, 199-200
60. Wirilander, Herrasväkeä, pp. 321, 334
61. Jutikkala, "Sääty-yhteiskunta Suomessa", Oma maa 2 (Porvoo, 1958), p. 129
62. von Klinkowström's argumentation from Vuorela, Opetusministeriö n historia 2, p. 130
63. On the data on secondary school pupils, see Wirilander, Herrasiäkeä, p. 458.
64. On the change in the control of educational policy, see Vuorela, Opetusministeriön historia 1. Kirkollistoimituskunta - opetusministeriö 1809-1824 (Helsinki, 1976), pp. 40-41
65. On the proposals of the clergy in the Porvoo Diet, see Hanho, Oppikoululaitoksen historia II, pp. 1-3
66. Aimo Halila, Porvoon valtiopäivät ja autonomian alkuaika. Suomen kansanedustuslaitoksen historia 1 (Helsinki, 1962), pp. 517, 533)
67. Vuorela, Opetusministeriön historia 2, pp. 62-63
68. There were difficulties in filling the lower schoolteacher posts. For many there was only one reason for being a teacher: a good opportunity to move to a better paid office of clergyman later (Eira Paunu, " Oppikoulunopettajiston muodostuminen itsenäiseksi virkakunnaksi". Suomen kirkkohistoriallisen seuran vuosikirja, (Helsinki, 1954), pp. 41-42. On the salaries of teachers, see Hanho, ibid., pp. 39, 42-43, 73
69. Hanho, Oppikoululaitoksen historia 1, p. 116
70. Hanho, Oppikoululaitoksen historia II, p. 11: Vuorela, Opetusministeriön historia 2, pp. 82-94
71. Ojala, Enspolren, p. 341
72. Aringström, Ståndssamhälle. p. 41
73. On the nationalism among the higher officials, see Klinge, "Suomen kansallisuusliikkeiden sosiaalisista suhteista" Historiallinen Aikakauskirja III (1969), pp. 185-204
74. and particularly Alapuro, State and Revolution, pp. 89-98
75. On educational policy in Russia, see Torke, Administration and Bureaucracy, pp. 36-37
76. Georg Schauman, "Huru 1852 års universitetsstatuter tillkommo", Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland CXL (Helsingfors, 1918), pp. 85-197
77. Keijo Korhonen, Suomen asiain komitea. Suomen korkeimman hallinnon järjestelyt ja toteuttaminen vuosina 1811-1826 (Helsinki, 1963), pp. 356-362. Historiallisia tutkimuksia LXV
78. Waris, Yliopisto, p. 233
79. Klinge, Suomen kansallisuusliikkeiden; Alapuro, State and Revolution, pp. 85-100
80. On the Russian policy, see Schauman, "Från Nikolai I:s och furst Menschikoffs tid", Svenska litteratursällskapets i Finland handlingar och uppsatser, XXX. (Helsingfors, 1916), pp. 3-7
81. Vrjö Nurmio, Taistelu suomen kielen asemasta 1800-luvun puolivälissä: vuoden 1850 kielisäännöksen syntyhistorian, voimassaolon ja kumoamisen selvittelyä (Porvoo, 1947). The school committee reported, for instance, that there were too many pupils in lower education (Hanho, Oppikoululaitoksen historia II, p. 89)
82. Nurmio, Taistelu Suomen kielen asemasta, pp. 88-89
83. On the class basis of recruitment to the university, see Ojala, Enspolven, pp. 341-342
84. The figures: Waris, Yliopisto, pp. 232, 258-261, Tables 12 and 13. For the number of higher officials, see Mikkeli, Aatelin osuus, p. 56
85. Konttinen, Perinteisesti moderniin; Marjatta Hietala, Services and Urbanization at the Turn of the Century. The Diffuse of Innovations. Finnish Historical Society, Studia Historica 23 (Helsinki, 1987)
86. See Konttinen, Perinteisesti moderniin, pp. 180-216
87. On the historical roots of a more uniform upper class, see Jutikkala, Johtavat säädyt, pp. 44-45
88. Jutikkala, "Sääty-yhteiskunta Suomessa", in Oma maa, II (Porvoo: WSOY, 1958) pp. 121-131.
89. Jutikkala, "Vapaudenaika", in Arvi Korhonen, (ed.), Suomen historian käsikirja I (Helsinki. 1949), p. 183.; Wirilander, Herrasväkeä
90. On the growing interests of the nobility in industry, see Jukka Kekkonen, Merkantilismista liberalismiin. Oikeushistoriallinen tutkimus elinkeinovapauden syntytaustasta Suomessa 1855-1879 (Helsinki, 1987)