Central nervous system infections by members of the Pseudallescheria boydii species complex in healthy and immunocompromised hosts: Epidemiology, clinical characteristics and outcome

Mycoses

Volumn 51, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 275-290

  Kantarcioglu, A Serda ^a   Guarro, Josep ^b   De Hoog, G S ^c,d  

^a ISTANBUL UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

^b FACULTAT DE MEDICINA I CIÈNCIES DE LA SALUT   (Spain)

^c CBS KNAW FUNGAL BIODIVERSITY CENTRE   (Netherlands)

^d UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Brain abscess; Central nervous system infections; Cerebral infections; Fungal meningitis; Near drowning; Pseudallescheria boydii; Scedosporium apiospermum

Indexed keywords

AMPHOTERICIN B; CASPOFUNGIN; FLUCYTOSINE; MICONAZOLE; POSACONAZOLE; TERBINAFINE; VORICONAZOLE; WATER;

ASPIRATION; BRAIN ABSCESS; BRAIN TISSUE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INFECTION; CEREBROSPINAL FLUID CULTURE; CLINICAL FEATURE; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HUMAN; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; IMMUNE STATUS; IMMUNITY; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INCUBATION TIME; INFECTION; INFECTION RISK; LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS; MENINGITIS; MENINX; MONOTHERAPY; MORTALITY; NEAR DROWNING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PETRIELLIDIUM BOYDII; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SPECIES; SPINAL CORD; STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; WATER POLLUTION;

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INFECTIONS; HUMANS; IMMUNOCOMPROMISED HOST; MADUROMYCOSIS; PSEUDALLESCHERIA; RISK FACTORS;

FUNGI; PSEUDALLESCHERIA BOYDII;

EID: 44949106238     PISSN: 09337407     EISSN: 14390507     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2008.01489.x     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. de Hoog GS, Marvin-Sikkema FD, Lahpoor GA, Gottschall JC, Prins RA, Gueho E. Ecology and physiology of the emerging opportunistic fungi Pseudallescheria boydii and Scedosporium prolificans. Mycoses 1994 37 : 71 8.
2. Gilgado F, Cano J, Gené J, Guarro J. Molecular phylogeny of the Pseudallescheria boydii species complex: proposal of two new species. J Clin Microbiol 2005 43 : 4930 42.
3. Gilgado F, Cano J, Gené J, Sutton DA, Guarro J. Molecular and phenotypic data support distinct species status for Scedosporium apiospermum and Pseudallescheria boydii and the new species Scedosporium dehoogii. J Clin Microbiol 2007 doi :.
4. Berenguer J, Diaz-Mediavilla J, Urra D, Munoz P. CNS infection caused by Pseudallescheria boydii: case report and review. Rev Infect Dis 1989 11 : 890 6.
5. Wilichowski E, Christe HJ, Schiffmann H, Schulz-Schaeffer W, Behrens-Baumann W. Fatal Pseudallescheria boydii panencephalitis in a child after near-drowning. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1996 15 : 365 70.
6. Nesky MA, McDougal CE, Peacock JE. Pseudallescheria boydii brain abscess successfully treated with voriconazole and surgical drainage: case report and literature review of central nervous system pseudallescheriasis. Clin Infect Dis 2000 31 : 673 7.
7. Montejo M, Muniz L, Zarraga S et al. Case reports. Infection due to Scedosporium apiospermum in renal transplant recipients: a report of two cases and literatüre review of central nervous system and cutaneous infections by Pseudallescheria boydii and Scedosporium apiospermum. Mycoses 2002 45 : 418 27.
8. Castiglioni B, Sutton DA, Rinaldi MG, Fung J, Kusne S. Pseudallescheria boydii (Anamorph Scedosporium apiospermum). Infection in solid organ transplant recipients in a tertiary medical center and review of literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 2002 81 : 333 48.
9. Husain S, Munoz P, Forrest G et al. Infections due to Scedosporium apiospermum and Scedosporium prolificans in transplant recipients: clinical characteristics and impact of antifungal agent therapy on outcome. Clin Infect Dis 2005 40 : 89 99.
10. Mursch K, Trnovec S, Ratz H et al. Successful treatment of multiple Pseudallescheria brain abscesses and ventriculitis/epedymitis in a 2-year-old child after a near-drowning episode. Childs Nerv Syst 2006 22 : 189 92.
11. Nguyen BD. Pseudallescheriasis of the lung and central nervous system: multimodality imaging. Am J Roentgenaol 2001 176 : 257 8.
12. Apostolova LG, Johnson EK, Adams HP, Jr. Disseminate Pseudallescheria boydii infection successfully treated with voriconazole. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005 76 : 1741 2.
13. Benham RW. Allescheria boydii, causative agent in a case of meningitis. J Invest Dermatol 1948 10 : 99 110.
14. Aronson SM, Benham R, Wolf A. Maduromycosis of the central nervous system. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1953 12 : 158 68.
15. Rosen F, Deck JH, Rewcastle NB. Allescheria boydii- unique systemic dissemination to thyroid and brain. Can Med Assoc J 1965 93 : 1125 7.
16. Forno LS, Billingham ME. Allescheria boydii infection of the brain. J Pathol 1972 106 : 195 8.
17. Selby R. Pachymeningitis secondary to Allescheria boydii. Case report. J Neurosurg 1972 36 : 225 7.
18. Lyttoon DG, Hamilton DR. Mycetoma in PNG with special reference to a case of extradural mycetoma. P N G Med J 1975 18 : 61 5.
19. Lutwick LI, Galgiani JL, Johnson RH, Stevens DA. Visceral fungal infections due to Petriellidium boydii (Allescheria boydii). Am J Med 1976 61 : 632 40.
20. Peters BS, Faggett T, Sampson CC. Isolation of Monosporium apiospermum from cerebrospinal fluid. J Nat Med Assoc 1976 68 : 512 3.
21. Winston DJ, Jordan MC, Rhodes J. Allescheria boydii infections in the immunosuppressed host. Am J Med 1977 63 : 830 5.
22. Walker DH, Adamec T, Krigman M. Disseminated petriellidosis. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1978 102 : 158 60.
23. Bell WE, Myers MG. Allescheria (Petriellidium) boydii brain abscess in a child with leukemia. Arch Neurol 1978 35 : 386 8.
24. Bryan CS, Disalvo AF, Kaufman L, Kaplan W, Brill AH, Abbott DC. Petriellidium boydii infection of the sphenoid sinus. Am J Pathol 1980 74 : 846 51.
25. Fry VG, Young CN. A rare fungal brain abscess in an uncompromised host. Surg Neurol 1981 15 : 446 9.
26. Meadow WL, Tipple MA, Rippon JW. Enophthalmitis caused by Petriellidium boydii. Am J Dis Child 1981 135 : 378 80.
27. Watanabe S, Hironaga M. An atypical isolate of Scedosporium apiospermum from a purulent meningitis in man. Sabouradia 1981 19 : 209 15.
28. Fisher JF, Shadomy S, Teabeut JR et al. Near-drowning complicated by brain abscess due to Pb. Arch Neurol 1982 39 : 511 3.
29. Anderson RL, Carroll TF, Harvey JT, Myers MG. Petriellidium (Allescheria) boydii orbital and brain abscess treated with intravenous miconazole. Am J Ophthalmol 1984 97 : 771 5.
30. Dubeau F, Roy LE, Allard J et al. Brain abscess due to Petriellidium boydii. J Can Sci Neurol 1984 11 : 395 8.
31. Schiess RJ, Coscia MF, McClellan GA. Petriellidium boydii pachymeningitis treated with miconazole and ketoconazole. Neurosurg 1984 14 : 220 4.
32. Shih LY, Lee N. Disseminated petriellidiosis (allescheriasis) in a patient with refractory acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Clin Pathol 1984 37 : 78 82.
33. Baudrillard JC, Rousseaux P, Lerais JM et al. Fungal mycotic aneurysms and multiple cerebral abscesses caused by Scedosporium apiospermum. Apropos of a case with review of the literature. J Radiol 1985 66 : 321 6.
34. Gari M, Fruit J, Rousseaux P et al. Scedosporium (Monosporium) apiospermum: multiple brain abscess. Sabouradia 1985 23 : 371 6.
35. Travis LB, Roberts GD, Wilson WR. Clinical significanse of Pseudallescheria boydii: a review of 1 years' experience. Mayo Cin Proc 1985 60 : 531 7.
36. Yoo D, Lee WH, Kwon-Chung KJ. Brain abscess due to Pseudallescheria boydii associated with primary non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of the central nervous system: a case report and literature review. Rev Infect Dis 1985 7 : 272 7.
37. Smith AG, Crain SM, Dejongh C, Thomas GM, Vigorito RD. Systemic pseudallescheriasis in a patient with acute myelocytic leukemia. Mycopathologia 1985 90 : 85 9.
38. Alsip SG, Corbs CG. Pseudallescheria boydii infection of the central nervous system in a cardiac transplant recipient. South Med J 1986 79 : 383 4.
39. Lazarus HS, Myers JP, Brocker RJ. Post-craniotomy wound infection caused by Pseudallescheria boydii. Case report. J Neurosurg 1986 64 : 153 4.
40. Guyotat D, Piens MA, Bouvier R, Fiere D. A case of disseminated Scedosporium apiospermum infection after bone marrow transplantation. Mykosen 1987 30 : 151 4.
41. Caya JG, Farmer SG, Williams GA, Franson TR, Komorovski RA, Kies JC. Bilateral Pseudallescheria boydii endophthalmitis in an immunocompromised patient. Wisconsin Med J 1988 87 : 11 4.
42. Perez RE, Smith M, McClendon J, Kim J, Eugenio N. Pseudallescheria boydii brain abscess. Am J Med 1988 84 : 359 62.
43. Anaissie E, Bodey GP, Kantarjian H et al. New spectrum of fungal infections in patients with cancer. Rev Infect Dis 1989 3 : 369 76.
44. Dworzack DL, Clark RB, Borkowski WJ et al. Pseudallescheria boydii brain abscess: associatiation with near-drowning and efficacy of high dose, prolonged MCZ therapy in patients with multiple abscess. Medicine (Baltimore) 1989 68 : 218 24.
45. Fessler RG, Brown FD. Superior sagittal sinus infection with Petriellidium boydii. Neurosurg 1989 24 : 604 7.
46. Lavarde V, Farge D, Sabine V, Dupont B, Mourier KI. Brain abscess due to Scedosporium apiospermum in a renal transplant patient. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1988 1 : 201 2 (Abstract).
47. Schwartz DA, Amenta PS, Finkelstein SD. Cerebral Pseudallescheria boydii infection: unique occurrence of fungus ball formation in the brain. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1989 91 : 79 84.
48. Garcia JA, Ingram CW, Granger D. Persistent neutrophilic meningitis due to Pseudallescheria boydii. Rev Infect Dis 1990 12 : 959 60.
49. Hachimi-Idrisi S, Willemsen M, Desprechins B et al. Pseudallescheria boydii and brain abscess. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1990 9 : 737 41.
50. Huang H, Zhu J, Zhang Y. The first case of Pseudallescheria meningitis in China. Electron microscopic study and antigenicity analysis of the agent. J Tongji Med Univ 1990 10 : 218 22.
51. Kershaw P, Freeman R, Templeton D et al. Pseudallescheria boydii infection of the central nervous system. Arch Neurol 1990 47 : 468 72.
52. Patterson TF, Andriole VT, Zervos MJ, Therasse D, Kauffman CA. The epidemiology of pseudallescheriasis omplicating transplantation: nosocomial and community-acquired infection. Mycoses 1990 33 : 297 302.
53. Durieu I, Parent M, Ajana F et al. Monosporium apiospermum meningoencephalitis: a clinico-pathological case. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991 54 : 731 3.
54. Hoffman P, Saint-Paul MC, Gari-Toussaint M et al. Infection disséminée a Scedosporium apiospermum chez un transplanté hépatique. Ann Pathol 1993 13 : 332 5.
55. Rüchel R, Wilichowski E. Cerebral Pseudallescheria mycosis after near-drowning. Mycoses 1995 38 : 473 5.
56. Albernaz V, Huston B, Castillo M, Mukherji S, Bouldin TW. Pseudallescheria boydii infection of the brain: imaging with pathological confirmation. Am J Neuroradiol 1996 17 : 589 92.
57. Lopez FA, Crowley RS, Wastila L, Valantine HA, Remington JS. Scedosporium apiospermum (Pseudallescheria boydii) infection in a heart transplant recipient: a case of mistaken identity. J Heart Lung Transplant 1998 17 : 321 4.
58. Montero A, Cohen JE, Fernandez MA, Mazzolini G, Gomez CR, Perugini J. Cerebral pseudallescheriasis due to Pseudallescheria boydii as the first manifestation of AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 1998 26 : 1476 7.
59. Khurshid A, Barnett VT, Sekosan M, Ginzburg AS, Önal E. Disseminated Pseudallescheria boydii infection in a nonimmunocompromised host. Chest 1999 116 : 572 4.
60. Nuermberger E. John Hopkins Case Rounds: Case 14. Available at: http://www.hopkins-aids.edu/educational/caserounds/caserounds_14.html (accessed on 14 August 2003).
61. Watson JC, Myseros JS, Bullock MR. True fungal mycotic aneurism of the basilary artery: a clinical and surgical dilemma. Cerebrovascular Dis 1999 9 : 50 3.
62. Deodhar L, Miskeen P, Kirpalani A, Jagose J, Sarkar S. Pseudallescheria Boydii Brain Abscess in an Immunocompromised Host. Available at: http://www.bhj.org/journal/2000_4201_jan00/CASE_180.HTM (accessed on 14 August 2003).
63. Horre R, Feil E, Stangel AP et al. Scedosporiosis of the brain with fatal outcome after traumatization of the foot. Case report. Mycoses 2000 43 (Suppl. 2 33 6.
64. Poza G, Montoya J, Redendo C et al. Meningitis caused by Pseudallescheria boydii treated with voriconazole. Clin Infect Dis 2000 30 : 981 2.
65. Dinesha RM, Dinesh RR, Shetty R, Jayaprakash CS, Raghuveer CV. Pseudallescheriasis- a rare fungal infection of brain and lungs. J Assoc Physicians India 2001 49 : 574 5.
66. Luu KK, Scott IU, Miller D, Davis JL. Endogenous Pseudallescheria boydii endophthalmitis in a patient with ring-enhancing brain lesions. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers 2001 32 : 325 9.
67. Mennino CJ, Storey CD. Pseudallescheria boydii (P. boydii) brain abscess. Southern Med J 2001 10 : S34 5.
68. Bartzack JC, Steele RW, Lopez AA. A near-drowning victim with pneumonia and hemiparesis. Infect Med 2002 19 : 98 103.
69. Campagnaro EL, Woodside KJ, Early MG et al. Disseminated Pseudallescheria boydii (Scedosporium apiospermum) infection in a renal transplant patient. Transp Infect Dis 2002 4 : 207 11.
70. Farina C, Arosio M, Marchesi G, Amer M. Scedosporium apiospermum post-traumatic cranial infection. Brain Inj 2002 16 : 627 31.
71. Mellinghoff IK, Winston DJ, Mukwaya G, Schiller GJ. Treatment of Scedosporium apiospermum brain abscess with posaconazole. Clin Infect Dis 2002 34 : 1648 50.
72. Messori A, Lanza C, De Nicola M et al. Mycotic aneurysms as lethal complication of brain pseudallescheriasis in a near-drowned child: a CT demonstration. Am J Neuroradiol 2002 23 : 1697 9.
73. Safdar A, Papadopoulos EB, Young JW. Breakthrough Scedosporium apiospermum (Pseudallescheria boydii) brain abscess during therapy for invazive pulmonary aspergillosis following high-risk allogenic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Scedosporiasis and recent advances in antifungal therapy. Transpl Infect Dis 2002 4 : 212 7.
74. Fietz T, Knauf W, Schwartz S, Thiel E. Intramedullary abscess in a patient with disseminated Scedosporium apiospermum infection. Br J Haematol 2003 120 : 724.
75. Pennekamp PH, Diedrich O, Zhou H, Kraft CN. Foot injury as a rare cause of scedosporiosis with fatal outcome. Unfallchirurg 2003 106 : 865 8.
76. Chaney S, Gopalan R, Berggren RE. Pulmonary Pseudallescheria boydii infection with cutaneous zygomycosis after near drowning. Sothern Med J 2004 97 : 683 7.
77. Danaher PJ, Walter EA. Successful treatment of chronic meningitis caused by Scedosporium apiospermum with oral voriconazole. Mayo Clin Proc 2004 79 : 707.
78. Hachem R, Graybill JR, Negroni R et al. Posaconazole as salvage therapy for Pseudallescheria infections: a case series. 14th ECCMID Conference (Prague, Czech Republic, May 1-4, 2004) Clin Microbiol Infect, 2004 10 (Suppl. 1 510, P 1791.
79. Kanafani ZA, Comair Y, Kanj SS. Pseudallescheria boydii cranial osteomyelitis and subdural empyema succesfuly treated with voriconazole: a case report and literature review. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004 23 : 836 40.
80. Kowacs PA, Soarez Silvado CE, Monteira de Almeida S et al. Infection of CNS by Scedosporium apiospermum after near-drowning. Report of a fatal case and analysis of its confounding factors. J Clin Pathol 2004 57 : 205 7.
81. Ridell J, IV, Chenoweth CE, Kauffman CA. Disseminated Scedosporium apiospermum infection in a previously healthy woman with HELLP syndrome. Mycoses 2004 47 : 442 6.
82. Tan TY, Liou CW, Kung LC. Meningitis caused by Pseudallescheria boydii. Chang Gung Med J 2004 27 : 228 32.
83. Chakraborti A, Workman MR, Bullock PR. Scedosporium apiospermum brain abscess treated with surgery and voriconazole. Case report. J Nerosurg 2005 1 (Suppl 83 7.
84. Garzoni C, Emonet S, Legout L et al. Atypical infections in tsunami survivors. Emerg Infect Dis 2005 11 : 1591 3.
85. Kotsiou M, Dotis J, Iosifidis E, Velegraki M, Tamiolaki M, Roilides E. Central nervous system infection due to Scedosporium apiospermum after near-drowning: a fatal case in a child. 2nd Trends in Medical Mycology (Berlin, Germany, 23-26 October 2005). Mycoses 2005 48 (Suppl. 2 89 (Abstracts).
86. Katragkou A, Dotis J, Tamiolaki M, Roilides E. Scedosporium apiospermum infection after near-drowning: a pediatric case and review. The 16th Congress of the International Society for Human and Animal Mycology (Paris, France, 25-29 June 2006) Abstract Book: P-0247.
87. Buzina W, Feierl G, Haas D et al. Lethal brain abscess due to Scedosporium apiospermum (teleomorph Pseudallescheria boydii) after a near-drowning incident: case report and review of the literature. Med Mycol 2006 44 : 473 7.
88. Lamaris GA, Chamilos G, Lewis RE et al. Scedosporium infection in a tertiary care center: a review of 25 cases from 1989-2006. Clin Infect Dis 2006 43 : 1580 4.
89. Acharya A, Ghimire A, Khanal B et al. Brain abscess due to Scedosporium apiospermum in a non immunocompromised child. Indian J Microbiol 2006 24 : 231 2.
90. Smoyens F, Knoop C, Schrooyen M et al. Disseminated Scedosporium apiospermum infection in a cystic fibrosis patient after double-lung transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 2006 25 : 603 7.
91. Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK. Central nervous system aspergillosis: a 20-year retrospective series. Hum Pathol 2002 33 : 116 24.
92. Hagensee ME, Bauwens JE, Kjos B, Bowden RA. Brain abscess following marrow transplantation: experience at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, 1984-1992. Clin Infect Dis 1994 19 : 402 8.
93. Pitisuttithum P, Negroni R, Graybill JR et al. Activity of posaconazole in the treatment of central nervous system fungal infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005 56 : 745 55.
94. Ender PT, Dolan MJ. Pneumonia associated with near-drowning. Clin Infect Dis 1997 25 : 896 907.
95. Van der Vliet JA, Tidow G, Kootstra G et al. Transplantation of contaminated organs. Br J Surg 1980 67 : 596 8.
96. Pinto MR, Mulloy B, Haido RM, Travassos LR, Barreto-Bergter E. A peptidorhamnomannan from the mycelium of Pseudallescheria boydii is a potential diagnostic antigen of this emerging human pathogen. Microbiology 2001 147 : 1499 506.
97. Pinto MR, Rodriguez ML, Travassos LR et al. Characterization of glucosylceramides Pseudallescheria boydii in and their involvement in fungal differentiation. Glycobiology 2002 12 : 251 60.
98. Pinto MR, De Sa AC, Limongi CL et al. Involvement of peptidorhamnomannan in the interaction of Pseudallescheria boydii and HEp2 cells. Microbs Infect 2004 6 : 1259 67.
99. Berreto-Bergter E, Pinto MR, Bittencourt VCB et al. Structural and fonctional aspects of glycoconjugates from Pseudallescheria boydii and Scedosporium prolificans. Abstracts, 2nd Meeting of ECMM/ISHAM Working Group on 'Pseudallescheria/Scedosporium Infections', Angers, France, 7-8 June, 2007.
100. Da Silva BA, dos Santos AL, Barreto-Bergter E, Pinto MR. Extracellular peptidase in the fungal pathogen Pseudallescheria boydii. Curr Microbiol 2006 53 : 18 22.
101. Da Silva BA, Pinto MR, Soares RMA et al. Pseudallescheria boydii releases metallopeptidases capable of cleaving several proteinaceous compounds. Res Microbiol 2006 157 : 425 32.
102. Gil-Lamaignere C, Maloukou A, Rodriguez-Tudela JL, Roilides E. Human phagocytic cell responses to Scedosporium prolificans. Med Mycol 2001 39 : 169 75.
103. Gil-Lamaignere C, Roilides E, Lyman CA et al. Human phagocytic cell responses to Scedosporium apiospermum (Pseudallescheria boydii): variable susceptibility to oxidative injury. Infect Immun 2003 71 : 6472 8.
104. Bittencourt VCB, Figueiredo RT, da Silva RB et al. An α-glucan of Pseudallescheria boydii is involved in fungal phagocytosis and toll-like receptor activation. J Biol Chem 2006 281 : 22614 23.
105. Jacobson ES. Pathogenic roles for fungal melanins. Clin Microbiol Rev 2000 13 : 708 17.
106. Kimura M, McGinnis MR. Fontana-Masson stained tissue from culture-proven mycoses. Arch Pthol Lab Med 1998 122 : 1107 11.
107. Lima OC, Larcher G, Vandeputte P et al. Molecular cloning and biochemical characterization of a Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase from Scedosporium apiospermum. Abstracts, 2nd Meeting of ECMM/ISHAM Working Group on 'Pseudallescheria/ Scedosporium Infections', Angers, France, 7-8 June, 2007.
108. Guarro J, Kantarcioglu AS, Horré R et al. Scedosporium apiospermum: changing clinical spectrum of a therapy-refractory opportunist. Med Mycol 2006 44 : 295 327.
109. McGinnis MR. Detection of fungi in cerebrospinal fluid. Am J Med 1983 75 : 129 38.
110. Davis LE. Fungal infections of the central nervous system. Neurol Clin 1999 17 : 761 81.
111. Denning DV. Invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 1998 26 : 781 803.
112. Livramento JA, Machado LR, Moreno-Carvalha OA et al. Cerebrospinal fluid in infection of the central nervous system by yeasts of the genus Candida: analysis of 11 cases. Ark Neuropsiquatr 1989 47 : 332 6.
113. Lionakis GS, Bodey GP, Tarrand JJ, Raad II, Kontoyiannis DP. The significanse of blood culture positive for emerging saprophytic moulds in cancer patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004 10 : 922 5.
114. Raj R, Frost AE. Scedosporium apiospermum fungemia in a lung transplant recipient. Chest 2002 121 : 1714 6.
115. Raffanti SP, Fyefe B, Carreiro S et al. Native valve endocarditis due to Pseudallescheria boydii in a patient with AIDS: case report and review. Rev Infect Dis 1990 9 : 993 6.
116. Roilides E, Cortez K, Katragkou A, Walsh TJ. Host defenses against Scedosporium spp. Abstracts, 2nd Meeting of ECMM/ISHAM Working Group on 'Pseudallescheria/Scedosporium Infections', Angers, France, 7-8 June, 2007.
117. Tadros TS, Workowski KA, Siegel RJ et al. Pathology of hyalohyphomycosis caused by Scedosporium apiospermum (Pseudallescheria boydii): an emerging mycosis. Hum Pathol 1998 29 : 1266 72.
118. Capilla J, Mayayo E, Serena C, Pastor FJ, Guarro J. A novel murine model of cerebral scedosporiosis: lack of effecacy of amphotericin B. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004 54 : 1092 5.
119. Johnson EM, Szkely EA, Warnock DW. In vitro activity of voriconazole, itraconazole and amphotericin B against filamentous fungi. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998 42 : 741 5.
120. Johnson LB, Kauffmann CA. Voriconazole: a new triazole antifungal agent. Cin Infect Dis 2003 36 : 630 7.
121. Carillo AJ, Guarro J. In vitro activities of four novel triazoles against Scedosporium spp. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004 45 : 2151 3.