Memory and the history of geographical knowledge: The commemoration of Mungo Park, African explorer

Journal of Historical Geography

Volumn 30, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 316-339

  Withers, Charles W J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EXPLORATION; GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE; HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY; MEMORY;

EID: 4444303163     PISSN: 03057488     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0305-7488(03)00048-3     Document Type: Article

References (206)

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33. Agulhon M. Marianne in Battle: Republican Imagery and Symbolism in France, 1798-1880 1981 Cambridge
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35. Mayo J. War Memorials as Political Landscape: The American Experience and Beyond 1988 New York
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37. Lipsitz G. Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture 1990 Minneapolis
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39. Sandage S. A marble house divided: the Lincoln Memorial, the Civil Rights movement, and the politics of memory Journal of American History 80 1993 135-167
40. Savage K. Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race, War and Monument in Nineteenth-Century America 1997 Princeton
41. McCannell D. The Vietnam memorial in Washington DC McCannell D. Empty Meeting Grounds 1992 London
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44. On Italy, see Zamponi S.F. Of storytellers and master narratives: modernity, memory, and history Social Science History 22 1998 415-444
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48. Olick J.K. What does it mean to normalize the past? Official memory in German politics since 1989 Social Science History 22 1998 547-572
49. Rowe W. Schelling V. Memory and Modernity: Popular Culture in Latin America 1991 London
50. Fussell P. The Great War and Modern Memory 1975 Oxford
51. Gillis R. Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity 1994 Princeton
52. Mosse G. Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars 1990 New York
53. Rittner C. Roth J.K. Memory Offended: The Auschwitz Comment Controversy 1981 New York
54. Vance J. Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning and the First World War 1997 Vancouver
55. Winter J. Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: the Great War in European Cultural History 1995 Cambridge
56. Young J.E. The Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning 1993 London and New Haven
57. McIntosh R.J. Tainter J.A. McIntosh S.K. The Way the Wind Blows: Climate, History and Human Action 2000 New York
58. Harvey D. Monument and myth Annals of the Association of American Geographers 69 1979 362-381
59. Charlesworth A. Contesting places of memory: the case of Auschwitz Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 12 1994 579-593
60. Heffernan M. For ever England: the Western Front and the politics of remembrance in Britain Ecumene 2 1995 293-324
61. Johnson N. Sculpting heroic histories: celebrating the centenary of the 1798 rebellion in Ireland Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 19 1994 78-93
62. Johnson N. Cast in stone: monuments, geography and nationalism Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 13 1995 51-65
63. Johnson N. The spectacle of memory: Ireland's remembrance of the Great War, 1919 Journal of Historical Geography 25 1999 36-56
64. Graham B. No place of mind: contested Protestant representations of Ulster Ecumene 1 1994 257-282
65. Atkinson D. Cosgrove D.E. Urban rhetoric and embodied identities: city, nation, and empire at the Vittorio Emanuele II monument in Rome, 1870-1945 Annals of the Association of American Geographers 88 1998 28-49
66. Till K. Staging the past: landscape designs, cultural identity and Erinnerüngspolitik at Berlin's Neue Wache Ecumene 6 1999 251-283
67. Osborne B.S. Constructing landscapes of power: the George Etiene Cartier monument, Montreal Journal of Historical Geography 24 1998 431-458
68. Cooke S. Negotiating memory and identity: the Hyde Park Holocaust, London Journal of Historical Geography 26 2000 449-465
69. Crang M. Travlou P.S. The city and topologies of memory Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 19 2001 161-178
70. Crang M. On the heritage trail: maps of and journeys to Olde Englande Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 12 1994 341-355
71. Edensor T. National identity and the politics of memory: remembering Bruce and Wallace in symbolic space Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 29 1997 175-194
72. Graham B. Shirlow P. The Battle of the Somme in Ulster memory and identity Political Geography 21 2002 881-904
73. Whelan Y. The construction and destruction of a colonial landscape: monuments to British monarchs in Dublin before and after independence Journal of Historical Geography 28 2002 508-533
74. Withers C.W.J. Place, memory, monument: memorializing the past in contemporary Highland Scotland Ecumene 3 1996 325-344
75. Helen D. Memory and American history Journal of American History 75 1989 1117-1129 quote from 1117
76. Confino A. Collective memory and cultural history: problems of method American Historical Review 102 1997 1387-1388
77. Confino A. Collective memory and cultural history: problems of method American Historical Review 102 1997 1388
78. Hutton P.H. History as an Art of Memory 1993 Hanover and London, 161
79. Confino A. Collective memory and cultural history: problems of method American Historical Review 102 1997 1395
80. Thompson M. Reception theory and the interpretation of historical meaning History and Theory 32 1993 248-272
81. Radstone S. Memory and Methodology 2000 Oxford
82. Olick J.K. Introduction: memory and the nation-continuities, conflicts, and transformations Social Science History 22 1998 385
83. Confino A. Collective memory and cultural history: problems of method American Historical Review 102 1997 1399
84. Said E. Invention, memory, and place Critical Inquiry 26 2000 175
85. Clayton D. Absence, memory and geography BC Studies 132 2001 65-79
86. McNeil M. Newton as national hero Fauvel J. Flood R. Shortland M. Wilson R. Let Newton Be! A New Perspective on his Life and Works 1989 223 Oxford
87. McNeil M. Newton as national hero Fauvel J. Flood R. Shortland M. Wilson R. Let Newton Be! A New Perspective on his Life and Works 1989 228 Oxford
88. For one discussion of commemorative practices in science, see Abir-Am P.G. Elliott C.A. Commemorative Practices in Science: Historical Perspectives on the Politics of Collective Memory, Osiris 14 1999 Chicago
89. For other general works, see also Theerman P. National images of science: British and American views of scientific heroes in the early nineteenth century Slade J.W. Lee J. Beyond the Two Cultures: Essays on Science, Technology, and Literature 1990 259-274 Ames
90. For particular studies, see for example Cantor G.N. The scientist as hero: public images of Michael Faraday Shortland M. Yeo R. Telling Lives in Science: Essays on Scientific Biography 1996 171-194 Cambridge
91. Gascoigne J. The scientist as patron and patriotic symbol: the changing reputation of Sir Joseph Banks Shortland M. Yeo R. Telling Lives in Science: Essays on Scientific Biography 1996 243-366 Cambridge
92. Moore J. Metabiographical reflections on Charles Darwin Shortland M. Yeo R. Telling Lives in Science: Essays on Scientific Biography 1996 267-282 Cambridge
93. Pais A. Einstein Lived Here 1994 New York and Oxford
94. Bensaude-Vincent B. Lavoisier: Mémoire d'une Révolution 1993 Paris
95. Bensaude-Vincent B. Between history and memory: centennial and bicentennial images of Lavoisier Isis 87 1993 481-499
96. Gingerich O. The Copernican quinquecentennial and its predecessors: historical insights and national agenda Abir-Am P.G. Elliott C.A. Commemorative Practices in Science: Historical Perspectives on the Politics of Collective Memory, Osiris 14, Chicago, 1999 37-60
97. Geographers have, of course, been the subject of considerable attention. See, for example, the entries in the volumes of Geographers' Biobibliographical Studies and the heightened attention paid to British geographers in the New Dictionary of British Geography, Oxford, forthcoming 2004.
98. Baigent E. Recreating our past: geography and the rewriting of the Dictionary of National Biography Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 19 1994 225-228
99. As Nicolaas Rupke is showing for the case of Alexander von Humboldt that distinguished German geographer has been differently commemorated within and outwith Germany Rupke N. A geography of enlightenment: the critical reception of Alexander von Humboldt's Mexico work Livingstone D.N. Withers C.W.J. Geography and Enlightenment 1999 319-343 Chicago
100. Rupke N. Humboldt A. Hessenbruch A. Readers' Guide to the History of Science 2001 356-359 London
101. N. Rupke, The Many Lives of Alexander von Humboldt, in preparation;.
102. There is, too, as one referee rightly pointed out, an emerging secondary literature which takes biographies-of men like James Cook, David Livingstone, Captain Scott to name but a few-as their subjects. My point that relatively little attention has been paid to the commemorative practices associated with geographers and geographical knowledge other than biographical writings is, I contend, sustainable.
103. Driver F. Henry Morton Stanley and his critics: geography, exploration and empire Past and Present 133 1991 134-167
104. Driver F. David Livingstone and the culture of exploration in mid-Victorian Britain National Portrait Gallery David Livingstone and the Victorian Encounter with Africa 1996 109-138 London
105. Driver F. Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire 2001 Oxford, passim
106. Mackenzie J.M. David Livingstone and the worldly after-life: imperialism and nationalism in Africa National Portrait Gallery David Livingstone and the Victorian Encounter with Africa 1996 201-219 London
107. Daum A. Celebrating humanism in St Louis: the origins of the Humboldt statue in Tower Grove Park, 1859-1878 Gateway Heritage 15 1994 48-58
108. For a discussion of the differing biographical treatment and critical reception of Humboldt, see Rupke N. A geography of enlightenment: the critical reception of Alexander von Humboldt's Mexico work Livingstone D.N. Withers C.W.J. Geography and Enlightenment 1999 319-343 Chicago
109. For reviews of work in both fields, see Livingstone D. The spaces of knowledge: contributions towards a historical geography of science Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 13 1995 5-34
110. Ophir A. Shapin S. The place of knowledge: a methodological survey Science in Context 4 1991 3-21
111. Smith C. Agar J. Introduction: making space for science Smith C. Agar J. Making Space for Science: Territorial Themes in the Making of Science 1998 1-24 London and New York
112. Withers C.W.J. Geography, Science and National Identity: Scotland since 1520 2001 Cambridge, 1-29
113. For a summary of Park's life and geographical achievements, see Withers C.W.J. Mungo Park (1771-1806) Geographers: Biobibliographical Studies 23 2004 105-115
114. Pratt M.L. Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation 1992 London and New York, 74
115. On Park and travel writing, see also Vogel A. Mungo Park's Lament and Other Narratives of Loss: Themes in African Travel Writing 1759-1830 2000 Ann Arbor
116. For modern biographies of Park, see Brent G. Black Nile, Mungo Park and the Search for the Niger 1977 London
117. Duffill M. West African Explorer 2000 Edinburgh
118. and, as what is still the definitive account Lupton K. Mungo Park, the African Traveler 1979 Oxford
119. Park M. The Journal of a Mission in the Interior of Africa in the Year 1805 by Mungo Park, With An Account of the Life of Mr Park (by John Wishaw), (including Isaaco's and Amadi Fatouma's Journals and, in the Second Edition, some Additional Material with the Account of the Life) 1815 London
120. Rennell, Geographical Illustrations, 365.
121. On Rennell's geographical work more widely, see Markham C. Major James Rennell and the Rise of Modern English Geography 1895 London
122. Baker J.N.L. The History of Geography 1963 Oxford, 130-157
123. Rennell J. Geographical Illustrations of Mr Park's Journey 1799 London
124. appears as an Appendix to Park M. Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa, Performed under the Direction and Patronage of the African Association, in the Years 1795, 1796 and 1797 1799 London, 365-458
125. The two authors who solved the second part of the 'Niger problem' did so by detailed examination of earlier authoritative textual accounts and by working from analogy from other rivers. The first was Christian Gottlieb Reichard, who published his views in 1802 in the Monatliche Correspondenz and in 1803 in the Allgemeine Geographische Ephemeriden. The second author was James MacQueen, who, in his 1821 Geographical and Commercial View of Northern and Central Africa, produced a map showing the correct course and termination of the Niger. MacQueen, a West Indian plantation owner, based his investigations in part upon the testimony of West African natives working his estates (one of whom had claimed to have rowed Park across the Niger during his first expedition).
126. On the mapping of Africa more generally, including the Niger, see Relano F. The Shaping of Africa: Cosmographic Discourse and Cartographic Science in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe 2002 Aldershot
127. For a summary discussion of the competing theories of the Niger's termination, see Withers C.W.J. Mungo Park (1771-1806) Geographers': Biobibliographical Studies 23 2004 105-115
128. Park, Travels in the Interior Districts, [i].
129. Borders Council Archives, MSS Sc/5/56, f. 10.
130. Borders Council Archives, MSS Sc/5/56, f. 10-11.
131. Pratt M.L. Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation 1992 London and New York, 75
132. The circumstances surrounding Park's death by drowning at Boussa Falls and various explanations of it-that he was deemed a spy, that he flouted local customary expectations regarding tribute payments, and that he was perceived as a British threat to Moorish-dominated trading networks are discussed by Lupton K. Mungo Park, the African Traveler 1979 Oxford, Despite some contemporary suspicions to the contrary, there is no evidence that Park was betrayed by his guides; either Amadi Fatouma, who, for other reasons, was not with Park when he was drowned, or Isaaco, who had been earlier sent back to the Gambia by Park and entrusted with his journals from the second expedition
133. Kelso Chronicle, 31 December 1841, 7.
134. On this, see Driver F. Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire 2001 Oxford, passim
135. Barnett C. Impure and worldly geography: the Africanist discourse of the Royal Geographical Society, 1831-1873 Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 23 1998 239-251
136. Helly D.O. 'Informed' opinion on tropical Africa in Great Britain 1860-1890 African Affairs 68 1969 195-217
137. For an assessment of the subscribers' details, see Borders Council Archives MSS Sc/S/12/18/2, Correspondence and subscriptions connected with the construction of monuments to various Selkirkshire worthies, ff. 4-13, 17-19.
138. For example, in the Southern Reporter, 3 April 1858 which noted 'For the benefit of those who may not have had an opportunity of subscribing to the fund for the erection of the proposed structure in honour of the African traveller, we may mention that, in addition to the banks, subscription lists lie in the shops of Mr Dunn, druggist; Mr Turnbull, saddler; Mr Dalgleish, baker; Mr Millar, watchmaker; and Mr Lewis, bookseller'.
139. Southern Reporter, 3 April 1858, 10 February 1859, 24 February 1859.
140. Southern Reporter, 10 February 1859, 2.
141. Southern Reporter, 24 February 1859, 2.
142. Southern Reporter, 3 March 1859, 3.
143. Southern Reporter, 3 March 1859, 4.
144. Kelso Chronicle, 18 March 1859.
145. Megill A. History, memory, identity History of the Human Sciences 11 1999 37-62
146. Chambers R. Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen 1854 103-105 Glasgow
147. Shortland M. Yeo R. Telling Lives in Science: Essays on Scientific Biography 1996 36 Cambridge
148. Shortland M. Yeo R. Telling Lives in Science: Essays on Scientific Biography 1996 28 Cambridge
149. Hoberman R. Modernizing Lives: Experiments in English Biography, 1918-1939 1987 Carbondale
150. See, for example Frasca-Spada M. Jardine N. Books and the Sciences in History 1996 Cambridge
151. Johns A. Science and the book in modern cultural historiography Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 29 1998 167-194
152. Topham J. Scientific publishing and the reading of science in nineteenth-century Britain: a historiographical survey and guide to sources Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 31 2000 559-612
153. Secord J.A. Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation 2000 Chicago
154. Nora P. Realms of Memory vol. II 1997 187 New York
155. The most recent biographical account of Park, together with an introduction to and re-print of his 1799 book is by Masters K.F. Travels in the Interior District of Africa 2000 Durham, NC
156. The Journal of a Mission in the Interior of Africa in the Year 1805.
157. See also Park M. Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa, performed in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797, by Mungo Park, with an Account of a Subsequent Mission to that Country in 1805 vol. 1 1816 Edinburgh, 1-2
158. B.H., The Life of Mungo Park, Edinburgh, 1835, 281-282.
159. Heffernan M.J. A dream as frail as those of ancient time: the in-credible geographies of Timbuctoo Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 19 2000 203-225
160. Jordanova L. Defining Features: Scientific and Medical Portraits 1660-2000 2000 London
161. Thomson J. Mungo Park and the Niger 1890 London and Liverpool, v-vi
162. Barnett C. Impure and worldly geography: the Africanist discourse of the Royal Geographical Society, 1831-1873 Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 23 1998 239-251
163. Maddrell A.M.C. Discourses of race and gender and the comparative method in geography school texts 1830-1918 Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 16 1998 81-103
164. Ploszajska T. Geographical Education, Empire and Citizenship: Geographical Teaching and Learning in English Schools, 1870-1944 Historical Geography Research Group Publication Series vol. 35 1999 Cambridge
165. For example, W.H. Hewitt, Mungo Park, London, 1923 is a volume in the 'Pioneers of Progress Empire Builders' series, and Sir George Scott's Mungo Park, London, 1930 is in a series entitled 'Peeps at Great Explorers' which included Captain Cook and David Livingstone. The phrase 'Age of High Empire' is taken from E. Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, London, 1987
166. For a discussion of the term in relation to Victorian geographical knowledge, see Driver F. Geography's empire: histories of geographical knowledge Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 10 1992 23-40
167. Gwynn S. Mungo Park and the Quest for the Niger 1934 London, 2
168. Gruffudd P. Back to the land: historiography, rurality and the nation in interwar Wales Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 19 1994 39-54
169. Matless D. Landscape and Englishness 1999 London
170. Winlow H. Anthropometric cartography: constructing Scottish racial identity in the early twentieth century Journal of Historical Geography 27 2001 507-528
171. Withers C.W.J. Geography, Science and National Identity: Scotland since 1520 2001 Cambridge, 220-225
172. Lewis Grassic Gibbon [real name, Leslie Mitchell], is famous for his depiction of Scottish rural life at the end of the nineteenth century, and as it was transformed by the Great War, in the trilogy A Scots Quair (Sunset Song (1932), Cloud Howe (1933) and Grey Granite (1934)).
173. Gibbon L.G. Niger The Life of Mungo Park 1934 Edinburgh, 12
174. National Library of Scotland [hereafter NLS], MS 10782, f. 181, 20 May 1794.
175. Ruskin J. The Works of John Ruskin vol. 29 1907 London, 452-454
176. Fors Clavigera, London, 1883, Volume VIII, Letter 92.
177. Southern Reporter, 1 November 1906.
178. Uncatalogued letter in Royal Scottish Geographical Society Archives [H. Johnston to RSGS], 4 December 1906.
179. Withers C.W.J. Mapping the Niger 1798-1832: truth, testimony and 'ocular demonstration' in the late Enlightenment Imago Mundi 56 2004 in press
180. Uncatalogued letters, RSGS Archives, Letters of 25 and 29 January, and 12 February 1912.
181. The Scotsman, 9 and 14 November 1955
182. Glasgow Herald 11 November 1955
183. Miller R. A Mungo Park anniversary Scottish Geographical Magazine 71 1955 147-156
184. Edinburgh University Library [hereafter EUL], Gen. 2248/3, Minutes of the Mungo Park Memorial Committee, Letter of 17 February 1970.
185. The geographer in question was Dr Catherine Snodgrass, who was lecturer in geography at Edinburgh from 1936 to 1957. By the 1970s, Snodgrass was much involved in Scottish cultural and political affairs, notably on behalf of the Scottish National Party. There is no evidence in the Minutes of the Mungo Park Memorial Committee of any party political differences in Park's intended memorialisation.
186. EUL, Gen 2248/3, Minutes for 21 April 1970
187. The Scotsman, 15 August 1971.
188. EUL, Gen 2248/3, Letters of 28 May and 1 June 1970.
189. NLS, MS Acc 9078, Numbers 493 and 494.
190. EUL, Gen 2248/3, passim..
191. This was as part of the second 'Scott's Selkirk' celebrations: see http://www.selkirk.bordernet.co.uk/scotts-selkirk/2001/programme.html .
192. Miller R. Mungo Park 1771-1971 Scottish Geographical Magazine 87 1971 164
193. EUL, Gen 2248/3, Lecture of 4 February 1971.
194. Boyle T.C. Water Music 1982 London, vii
195. Olick J.K. Memory and the nation Social Science History 22 1998 380-381
196. In his study of Victorian Edinburgh, for example, Richard Rodger documents the erection between 1865 and 1878 of seven prominent sculptures of men of letters and science in the capital: one was to David Livingstone: Rodger R. The Transformation of Edinburgh. Land, Property and Trust in the Nineteenth Century 2001 Cambridge, 484
197. More generally, see Gunn S. Ritual and civic culture in the English Industrial city c. 1835-1914 Morris R.J. Trainor R.H. Urban Governance: Britain and Beyond since 1750 2000 226-241 Aldershot
198. Gunn S. The Public Culture of the Victorian Middle Classes: Ritual and Authority in the English Industrial City 1840-1914 2000 Manchester
199. Driver F. Henry Morton Stanley and his critics: geography, exploration and empire, Geography Militant 133 1991 214-219
200. McNeil M. Newton as national hero Fauvel J. Flood R. Shortland M. Wilson R. Let Newton Be! A New Perspective on his Life and Works 1989 237 Oxford
201. Thompson M. Reception theory and the interpretation of historical meaning History and Theory 32 1993 248-272
202. One study in this context is Riffenburgh B. The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism and Geographical Discovery 1993 London and New York
203. Abir-Am P.G. Elliott C.A. Commemorative Practices in Science: Historical Perspectives on the Politics of Collective Memory, Osiris 14 1999 Chicago,
204. and particularly Abir-Am P.G. Elliott C.A. Commemorative Practices in Science: Historical Perspectives on the Politics of Collective Memory, Osiris 14 1999 1-33 Chicago
205. For one such geography of reception in relation to reviewing cultures, see Rupke N. A geography of enlightenment: the critical reception of Alexander von Humboldt's Mexico work Livingstone D.N. Withers C.W.J. Geography and Enlightenment 1999 319-343 Chicago
206. Riffenburgh B. The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism and Geographical Discovery 1993 London and New York