Redeeming the 'Indian': Sport and ethnicity in post-revolutionary Mexico

Patterns of Prejudice

Volumn 38, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 213-231

  Brewster, Keith ^a  

^a NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cosmic Race; Ethnicity; Identity; Indigenous; Mestizos; Mexico; Olympic Games; Sport

Indexed keywords

EID: 4444288107     PISSN: 0031322X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/0031322042000250439     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. Any general history of twentieth-century Central America will provide accounts of such massacres. One of the most notorious incidents, however, was the violence committed against indigenous groups in El Salvador between 1931-2; see Thomas. P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1971); Roque Dalton, Miguel Marmol (Willimantic, CT: Curbstone Press 1987). For a provocative thesis as to why indigenous groups in Central America have suffered such violence, see R. Adams, "The conquest tradition in Mesoamerica', The Americas, vol. 46, 1989, 119-36.
2. Any general history of twentieth-century Central America will provide accounts of such massacres. One of the most notorious incidents, however, was the violence committed against indigenous groups in El Salvador between 1931-2; see Thomas. P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1971); Roque Dalton, Miguel Marmol (Willimantic, CT: Curbstone Press 1987). For a provocative thesis as to why indigenous groups in Central America have suffered such violence, see R. Adams, "The conquest tradition in Mesoamerica', The Americas, vol. 46, 1989, 119-36.
3. Any general history of twentieth-century Central America will provide accounts of such massacres. One of the most notorious incidents, however, was the violence committed against indigenous groups in El Salvador between 1931-2; see Thomas. P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1971); Roque Dalton, Miguel Marmol (Willimantic, CT: Curbstone Press 1987). For a provocative thesis as to why indigenous groups in Central America have suffered such violence, see R1. Adams, "The conquest tradition in Mesoamerica', The Americas, vol. 46, 1989, 119-36.
4. Mestizos: Mexicans of a mixed Spanish and indigenous ancestry.
5. Despite being, to some degree, a pejorative, the term 'Indian' is commonly used by historians of Latin America to refer to indigenous groups generally, and appears henceforth in this paper without quotation marks.
6. There is a growing body of work reflecting on the significance of indigenous participation in military campaigns in Mexico during the nineteenth century. The following offer merely a sample of these studies that come to diverse conclusions: Eric Van Young, 'The raw and the cooked: elite and popular ideology in Mexico, 1800-1821', in A. Ouweneel and S. Miller (eds), The Indian Community of Colonial Mexico (Amsterdam: CEDLA 1990), 295-321; Florencia Mallon, Peasant and Nation: The Making of Postcolonial Mexico and Peru (Berkeley: University of California Press 1990); Guy P. C. Thomson with David LaFrance, Patriotism, Politics, and Popular Liberalism in Nineteenth-century Mexico (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources 1999); Peter Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation of Mexico's National State: Guerrero 1800-1857 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 1996).
7. There is a growing body of work reflecting on the significance of indigenous participation in military campaigns in Mexico during the nineteenth century. The following offer merely a sample of these studies that come to diverse conclusions: Eric Van Young, 'The raw and the cooked: elite and popular ideology in Mexico, 1800-1821', in A. Ouweneel and S. Miller (eds), The Indian Community of Colonial Mexico (Amsterdam: CEDLA 1990), 295-321; Florencia Mallon, Peasant and Nation: The Making of Postcolonial Mexico and Peru (Berkeley: University of California Press 1990); Guy P. C. Thomson with David LaFrance, Patriotism, Politics, and Popular Liberalism in Nineteenth-century Mexico (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources 1999); Peter Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation of Mexico's National State: Guerrero 1800-1857 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 1996).
8. There is a growing body of work reflecting on the significance of indigenous participation in military campaigns in Mexico during the nineteenth century. The following offer merely a sample of these studies that come to diverse conclusions: Eric Van Young, 'The raw and the cooked: elite and popular ideology in Mexico, 1800-1821', in A. Ouweneel and S. Miller (eds), The Indian Community of Colonial Mexico (Amsterdam: CEDLA 1990), 295-321; Florencia Mallon, Peasant and Nation: The Making of Postcolonial Mexico and Peru (Berkeley: University of California Press 1990); Guy P. C. Thomson with David LaFrance, Patriotism, Politics, and Popular Liberalism in Nineteenth-century Mexico (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources 1999); Peter Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation of Mexico's National State: Guerrero 1800-1857 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 1996).
9. There is a growing body of work reflecting on the significance of indigenous participation in military campaigns in Mexico during the nineteenth century. The following offer merely a sample of these studies that come to diverse conclusions: Eric Van Young, 'The raw and the cooked: elite and popular ideology in Mexico, 1800-1821', in A. Ouweneel and S. Miller (eds), The Indian Community of Colonial Mexico (Amsterdam: CEDLA 1990), 295-321; Florencia Mallon, Peasant and Nation: The Making of Postcolonial Mexico and Peru (Berkeley: University of California Press 1990); Guy P. C. Thomson with David LaFrance, Patriotism, Politics, and Popular Liberalism in Nineteenth-century Mexico (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources 1999); Peter Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation of Mexico's National State: Guerrero 1800-1857 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 1996).
10. See E. Hu-DeHart, Yaqui Resistance and Survival (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1984).
11. T. G. Powell, 'Mexican intellectuals and the Indian question, 1876-1911', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 48, 1968, 19-36. See also William D. Raat, 'Ideas and society in Don Porfirio's Mexico', The Americas, vol. 30, 1973, 32-53; Martin S. Stabb, Indigenism and racism in Mexican thought, 1857-1911', Journal of Inter-American Studies, vol. 1, 1959, 405-23.
12. T. G. Powell, 'Mexican intellectuals and the Indian question, 1876-1911', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 48, 1968, 19-36. See also William D. Raat, 'Ideas and society in Don Porfirio's Mexico', The Americas, vol. 30, 1973, 32-53; Martin S. Stabb, Indigenism and racism in Mexican thought, 1857-1911', Journal of Inter-American Studies, vol. 1, 1959, 405-23.
13. T. G. Powell, 'Mexican intellectuals and the Indian question, 1876-1911', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 48, 1968, 19-36. See also William D. Raat, 'Ideas and society in Don Porfirio's Mexico', The Americas, vol. 30, 1973, 32-53; Martin S. Stabb, Indigenism and racism in Mexican thought, 1857-1911', Journal of Inter-American Studies, vol. 1, 1959, 405-23.
14. John A. Britton, 'Indian education, nationalism, and federalism in Mexico, 1920-1921', The Americas, vol. 32, no. 3, 1976, 447.
15. David Brading, 'Manuel Gamio and official indigenismo', Bulletin of Latin American Studies, vol. 7, no. 1, 1988, 75-89. For a thoughtful essay on the links between a Golden Age and nationalism, see Anthony Smith, 'The "golden age" and national renewal', in Geoffrey Hosking and George Schöpflin (eds), Myths and Nationhood (London: Hurst and Co. 1997), 36-59.
16. David Brading, 'Manuel Gamio and official indigenismo', Bulletin of Latin American Studies, vol. 7, no. 1, 1988, 75-89. For a thoughtful essay on the links between a Golden Age and nationalism, see Anthony Smith, 'The "golden age" and national renewal', in Geoffrey Hosking and George Schöpflin (eds), Myths and Nationhood (London: Hurst and Co. 1997), 36-59.
17. For an interesting study of the links between archaeology and nationalism, see Margarita Díaz-Andreu, 'Nacionalismo y arqueología: del Viejo al Nuevo Mundo', Arqueología. Revista de la Coordinación Nacional de Arqueología del Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia de México, vol. 20, 1998, 115-38. See also Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo, Mexico at the World Fairs (Berkeley: University of California, 1996), 181-240; Mauricio Tenorillo-Trillo, '1910 Mexico City: space and nation in the city of the centenario', in William H. Beezley and David E. Lorey (eds), Viva México! Viva la Independencia!: Celebrations of September 16 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources 2001), 179-80.
18. For an interesting study of the links between archaeology and nationalism, see Margarita Díaz-Andreu, 'Nacionalismo y arqueología: del Viejo al Nuevo Mundo', Arqueología. Revista de la Coordinación Nacional de Arqueología del Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia de México, vol. 20, 1998, 115-38. See also Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo, Mexico at the World Fairs (Berkeley: University of California, 1996), 181-240; Mauricio Tenorillo-Trillo, '1910 Mexico City: space and nation in the city of the centenario', in William H. Beezley and David E. Lorey (eds), Viva México! Viva la Independencia!: Celebrations of September 16 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources 2001), 179-80.
19. For an interesting study of the links between archaeology and nationalism, see Margarita Díaz-Andreu, 'Nacionalismo y arqueología: del Viejo al Nuevo Mundo', Arqueología. Revista de la Coordinación Nacional de Arqueología del Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia de México, vol. 20, 1998, 115-38. See also Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo, Mexico at the World Fairs (Berkeley: University of California, 1996), 181-240; Mauricio Tenorillo-Trillo, '1910 Mexico City: space and nation in the city of the centenario', in William H. Beezley and David E. Lorey (eds), Viva México! Viva la Independencia!: Celebrations of September 16 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources 2001), 179-80.
20. For examples of indigenous mobilization, see Keith Brewster, Militarism, Ethnicity and Politics in the Sierra de Puebla (1917-1930) (Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2003); Keith Brewster, 'Militarism and ethnicity in the Sierra de Puebla, Mexico', The Americas, vol. 56, no. 2, 1999, 253-75; P. Friedrich, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall 1970); F. J. Schryer, Ethnicity and Class Conflict in Rural Mexico (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1990); H. Campbell, Zapotec Renaissance: Ethnic Politics and Cultural Revivalism in Southern Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1994); J. W. Rubin, Decentering the Regime: Ethnicity, Radicalism, and Democracy in Juchitán, Mexico (Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press 1997).
21. For examples of indigenous mobilization, see Keith Brewster, Militarism, Ethnicity and Politics in the Sierra de Puebla (1917-1930) (Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2003); Keith Brewster, 'Militarism and ethnicity in the Sierra de Puebla, Mexico', The Americas, vol. 56, no. 2, 1999, 253-75; P. Friedrich, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall 1970); F. J. Schryer, Ethnicity and Class Conflict in Rural Mexico (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1990); H. Campbell, Zapotec Renaissance: Ethnic Politics and Cultural Revivalism in Southern Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1994); J. W. Rubin, Decentering the Regime: Ethnicity, Radicalism, and Democracy in Juchitán, Mexico (Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press 1997).
22. For examples of indigenous mobilization, see Keith Brewster, Militarism, Ethnicity and Politics in the Sierra de Puebla (1917-1930) (Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2003); Keith Brewster, 'Militarism and ethnicity in the Sierra de Puebla, Mexico', The Americas, vol. 56, no. 2, 1999, 253-75; P. Friedrich, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall 1970); F. J. Schryer, Ethnicity and Class Conflict in Rural Mexico (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1990); H. Campbell, Zapotec Renaissance: Ethnic Politics and Cultural Revivalism in Southern Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1994); J. W. Rubin, Decentering the Regime: Ethnicity, Radicalism, and Democracy in Juchitán, Mexico (Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press 1997).
23. For examples of indigenous mobilization, see Keith Brewster, Militarism, Ethnicity and Politics in the Sierra de Puebla (1917-1930) (Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2003); Keith Brewster, 'Militarism and ethnicity in the Sierra de Puebla, Mexico', The Americas, vol. 56, no. 2, 1999, 253-75; P. Friedrich, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall 1970); F. J. Schryer, Ethnicity and Class Conflict in Rural Mexico (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1990); H. Campbell, Zapotec Renaissance: Ethnic Politics and Cultural Revivalism in Southern Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1994); J. W. Rubin, Decentering the Regime: Ethnicity, Radicalism, and Democracy in Juchitán, Mexico (Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press 1997).
24. For examples of indigenous mobilization, see Keith Brewster, Militarism, Ethnicity and Politics in the Sierra de Puebla (1917-1930) (Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2003); Keith Brewster, 'Militarism and ethnicity in the Sierra de Puebla, Mexico', The Americas, vol. 56, no. 2, 1999, 253-75; P. Friedrich, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall 1970); F. J. Schryer, Ethnicity and Class Conflict in Rural Mexico (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1990); H. Campbell, Zapotec Renaissance: Ethnic Politics and Cultural Revivalism in Southern Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1994); J. W. Rubin, Decentering the Regime: Ethnicity, Radicalism, and Democracy in Juchitán, Mexico (Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press 1997).
25. For examples of indigenous mobilization, see Keith Brewster, Militarism, Ethnicity and Politics in the Sierra de Puebla (1917-1930) (Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2003); Keith Brewster, 'Militarism and ethnicity in the Sierra de Puebla, Mexico', The Americas, vol. 56, no. 2, 1999, 253-75; P. Friedrich, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall 1970); F. J. Schryer, Ethnicity and Class Conflict in Rural Mexico (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1990); H. Campbell, Zapotec Renaissance: Ethnic Politics and Cultural Revivalism in Southern Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1994); J. W. Rubin, Decentering the Regime: Ethnicity, Radicalism, and Democracy in Juchitán, Mexico (Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press 1997).
26. Ilene O'Malley, The Myth of the Revolution: Hen Cults and the Institutionalization of the Mexican State, 1920-40 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1986). See also Samuel Brunk, 'Remembering Emiliano Zapata: three moments in the posthumous career of the martyr of Chinameca', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 78, no. 3, 1998, 457-90; Alan Knight, 'Popular culture and the revolutionary state in Mexico, 1910-1940', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 74, no. 3, 1994, 393-444; JoAnn Martin, 'Contesting authenticity: battles over the representation of history in Morelos, Mexico', Ethnohistory, vol. 40, no. 3, summer 1993, 439-63; David E. Lorey, "The revolutionary festival in Mexico: November 20 celebrations in the 1920s and 1930s', The Americas, vol. 54, no. 1, 1997, 39-82; Thomas Benjamin, La Revolución: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth and History (Austin: University of Texas Press 2000).
27. Ilene O'Malley, The Myth of the Revolution: Hen Cults and the Institutionalization of the Mexican State, 1920-40 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1986). See also Samuel Brunk, 'Remembering Emiliano Zapata: three moments in the posthumous career of the martyr of Chinameca', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 78, no. 3, 1998, 457-90; Alan Knight, 'Popular culture and the revolutionary state in Mexico, 1910-1940', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 74, no. 3, 1994, 393-444; JoAnn Martin, 'Contesting authenticity: battles over the representation of history in Morelos, Mexico', Ethnohistory, vol. 40, no. 3, summer 1993, 439-63; David E. Lorey, "The revolutionary festival in Mexico: November 20 celebrations in the 1920s and 1930s', The Americas, vol. 54, no. 1, 1997, 39-82; Thomas Benjamin, La Revolución: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth and History (Austin: University of Texas Press 2000).
28. Ilene O'Malley, The Myth of the Revolution: Hen Cults and the Institutionalization of the Mexican State, 1920-40 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1986). See also Samuel Brunk, 'Remembering Emiliano Zapata: three moments in the posthumous career of the martyr of Chinameca', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 78, no. 3, 1998, 457-90; Alan Knight, 'Popular culture and the revolutionary state in Mexico, 1910-1940', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 74, no. 3, 1994, 393-444; JoAnn Martin, 'Contesting authenticity: battles over the representation of history in Morelos, Mexico', Ethnohistory, vol. 40, no. 3, summer 1993, 439-63; David E. Lorey, "The revolutionary festival in Mexico: November 20 celebrations in the 1920s and 1930s', The Americas, vol. 54, no. 1, 1997, 39-82; Thomas Benjamin, La Revolución: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth and History (Austin: University of Texas Press 2000).
29. Ilene O'Malley, The Myth of the Revolution: Hen Cults and the Institutionalization of the Mexican State, 1920-40 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1986). See also Samuel Brunk, 'Remembering Emiliano Zapata: three moments in the posthumous career of the martyr of Chinameca', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 78, no. 3, 1998, 457-90; Alan Knight, 'Popular culture and the revolutionary state in Mexico, 1910-1940', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 74, no. 3, 1994, 393-444; JoAnn Martin, 'Contesting authenticity: battles over the representation of history in Morelos, Mexico', Ethnohistory, vol. 40, no. 3, summer 1993, 439-63; David E. Lorey, "The revolutionary festival in Mexico: November 20 celebrations in the 1920s and 1930s', The Americas, vol. 54, no. 1, 1997, 39-82; Thomas Benjamin, La Revolución: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth and History (Austin: University of Texas Press 2000).
30. Ilene O'Malley, The Myth of the Revolution: Hen Cults and the Institutionalization of the Mexican State, 1920-40 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1986). See also Samuel Brunk, 'Remembering Emiliano Zapata: three moments in the posthumous career of the martyr of Chinameca', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 78, no. 3, 1998, 457-90; Alan Knight, 'Popular culture and the revolutionary state in Mexico, 1910-1940', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 74, no. 3, 1994, 393-444; JoAnn Martin, 'Contesting authenticity: battles over the representation of history in Morelos, Mexico', Ethnohistory, vol. 40, no. 3, summer 1993, 439-63; David E. Lorey, "The revolutionary festival in Mexico: November 20 celebrations in the 1920s and 1930s', The Americas, vol. 54, no. 1, 1997, 39-82; Thomas Benjamin, La Revolución: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth and History (Austin: University of Texas Press 2000).
31. Ilene O'Malley, The Myth of the Revolution: Hen Cults and the Institutionalization of the Mexican State, 1920-40 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1986). See also Samuel Brunk, 'Remembering Emiliano Zapata: three moments in the posthumous career of the martyr of Chinameca', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 78, no. 3, 1998, 457-90; Alan Knight, 'Popular culture and the revolutionary state in Mexico, 1910-1940', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 74, no. 3, 1994, 393-444; JoAnn Martin, 'Contesting authenticity: battles over the representation of history in Morelos, Mexico', Ethnohistory, vol. 40, no. 3, summer 1993, 439-63; David E. Lorey, "The revolutionary festival in Mexico: November 20 celebrations in the 1920s and 1930s', The Americas, vol. 54, no. 1, 1997, 39-82; Thomas Benjamin, La Revolución: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth and History (Austin: University of Texas Press 2000).
32. O'Malley, 127.
33. Benjamin, 133-6.
34. Quoted in Brading, 82.
35. José Vasconcelcs, The Cosmic Race/La raza cosmica, trans. from the Spanish by Didier T. Jaén (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press 1997), 31.
36. Julio C. Tresierra, 'Mexico: indigenous peoples and the nation-state', in Donna Lee Van Court (ed.), Indigenous Peoples and Democracy in Latin America (London: Macmillan 1994), 190.
37. For examples of such rhetoric, see Brewster, Militarism, 157-8.
38. Josefina Zoraida Vázquez, Nationalismo y educacíón en México (Mexico: Colegio de México 1970), 21, trans. and quoted in Benjamin Smith, The Myth of Zapata: Construction and Contestation', M.Phil. dissertation, University of Cambridge, 2002.
39. Josefina Zoraida Vázquez, Nationalismo y educacíón en México (Mexico: Colegio de México 1970), 21, trans. and quoted in Benjamin Smith, The Myth of Zapata: Construction and Contestation', M.Phil. dissertation, University of Cambridge, 2002.
40. Mary Kay Vaughan, Cultural Politics in Revolution: Teachers, Peasants, and Schools in Mexico, 1930-40 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press 1997), 4.
41. Tresierra, 194.
42. Ramón E. Ruíz, Mexico: The Challenges of Poverty and Literacy (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library 1963), 26-7.
43. See, for example, Jan Rus, 'Whose caste war? Indians, Ladinos, and the Chiapas "caste war" of 1869', in Murdo J. MacLeod and Robert Wasserstrom (eds), Spaniards and Indians in Southeastern Mesoamerica (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1983), 127-68.
44. William H. Beezley, Judas at the Jockey Club and Other Episodes in Porfirian Mexico (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1987), 15-52; Ethel Tweedie, Mexico As I Saw It (London: Nelson [1911]), 156-73.
45. William H. Beezley, Judas at the Jockey Club and Other Episodes in Porfirian Mexico (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1987), 15-52; Ethel Tweedie, Mexico As I Saw It (London: Nelson [1911]), 156-73.
46. Lorey; Benjamin. Various other attempts had been made to introduce an athletics competition into the proceedings during the 1930s, but it was not until 1941 that it became institutionalized.
47. Mexico was not alone in this. Fuelled by concerns over mass immigration, similar developments took place in the United States; see Steven W. Pope, Patriotic Games: Sporting Traditions in the American Imagination 1876-1926 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press 1997). Post-revolutionary governments were also concerned with their international image and, in particular, wished to normalize relations with the United States. To this end, the staging of and regular participation in international sporting events played an important role. For an analysis of Mexico's participation in the Central American Games, see Richard McGehee, 'The origins of Olympism in Mexico: the Central American Games of 1926', International Journal of the History of Sport, vol. 10, no. 3, 1993.
48. Mexico was not alone in this. Fuelled by concerns over mass immigration, similar developments took place in the United States; see Steven W. Pope, Patriotic Games: Sporting Traditions in the American Imagination 1876-1926 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press 1997). Post-revolutionary governments were also concerned with their international image and, in particular, wished to normalize relations with the United States. To this end, the staging of and regular participation in international sporting events played an important role. For an analysis of Mexico's participation in the Central American Games, see Richard McGehee, 'The origins of Olympism in Mexico: the Central American Games of 1926', International Journal of the History of Sport, vol. 10, no. 3, 1993.
49. Joseph L. Arbena, 'Sport, development and Mexican nationalism, 1920-1970', Journal of Sport History, vol. 18, no. 3, 1991, 350-63. Although English migrants (predominantly Cornish miners) had brought soccer to Mexico in the late nineteenth century, it was not until the 1920s that it began to attract a wider following. Teams with such names as the Mexican Country Club and the British Club graphically portray the nationality of those who competed for the Mexican national championship in its early years; see Carlos F. Ramírez, Cual es la historia, al día, del Fútbol Mexicano, 1902-1960 (Mexico City: Editorial Navaro 1960), 11; Claudia Palma Rubín de Celis, El mundo del fútbol: su impacto social, político, y comercial (Bogota: Tm. Edits 1994), 41.
50. Joseph L. Arbena, 'Sport, development and Mexican nationalism, 1920-1970', Journal of Sport History, vol. 18, no. 3, 1991, 350-63. Although English migrants (predominantly Cornish miners) had brought soccer to Mexico in the late nineteenth century, it was not until the 1920s that it began to attract a wider following. Teams with such names as the Mexican Country Club and the British Club graphically portray the nationality of those who competed for the Mexican national championship in its early years; see Carlos F. Ramírez, Cual es la historia, al día, del Fútbol Mexicano, 1902-1960 (Mexico City: Editorial Navaro 1960), 11; Claudia Palma Rubín de Celis, El mundo del fútbol: su impacto social, político, y comercial (Bogota: Tm. Edits 1994), 41.
51. Joseph L. Arbena, 'Sport, development and Mexican nationalism, 1920-1970', Journal of Sport History, vol. 18, no. 3, 1991, 350-63. Although English migrants (predominantly Cornish miners) had brought soccer to Mexico in the late nineteenth century, it was not until the 1920s that it began to attract a wider following. Teams with such names as the Mexican Country Club and the British Club graphically portray the nationality of those who competed for the Mexican national championship in its early years; see Carlos F. Ramírez, Cual es la historia, al día, del Fútbol Mexicano, 1902-1960 (Mexico City: Editorial Navaro 1960), 11; Claudia Palma Rubín de Celis, El mundo del fútbol: su impacto social, político, y comercial (Bogota: Tm. Edits 1994), 41.
52. Between 1929 and 1945, over 100 articles appeared in Mexico City newspapers emphasizing the importance of sport in the development of the Mexican nation and its people. For examples of such rhetoric, see: 'El deporte y la Revolución', El Nacional, 4 November 1935, 8; David Ayala, 'Los deportes deben ser estimulados en beneficio popular', El Nacional, 3 January 1936, 4d; 'Una juventad disciplinada y fuerte es la base para tener ejército eficiente', Excélsior, 18 November 1940; Antonio Zozaya, 'Educación física', Excélsior, 23 November 1940.
53. Between 1929 and 1945, over 100 articles appeared in Mexico City newspapers emphasizing the importance of sport in the development of the Mexican nation and its people. For examples of such rhetoric, see: 'El deporte y la Revolución', El Nacional, 4 November 1935, 8; David Ayala, 'Los deportes deben ser estimulados en beneficio popular', El Nacional, 3 January 1936, 4d; 'Una juventad disciplinada y fuerte es la base para tener ejército eficiente', Excélsior, 18 November 1940; Antonio Zozaya, 'Educación física', Excélsior, 23 November 1940.
54. Between 1929 and 1945, over 100 articles appeared in Mexico City newspapers emphasizing the importance of sport in the development of the Mexican nation and its people. For examples of such rhetoric, see: 'El deporte y la Revolución', El Nacional, 4 November 1935, 8; David Ayala, 'Los deportes deben ser estimulados en beneficio popular', El Nacional, 3 January 1936, 4d; 'Una juventad disciplinada y fuerte es la base para tener ejército eficiente', Excélsior, 18 November 1940; Antonio Zozaya, 'Educación física', Excélsior, 23 November 1940.
55. Between 1929 and 1945, over 100 articles appeared in Mexico City newspapers emphasizing the importance of sport in the development of the Mexican nation and its people. For examples of such rhetoric, see: 'El deporte y la Revolución', El Nacional, 4 November 1935, 8; David Ayala, 'Los deportes deben ser estimulados en beneficio popular', El Nacional, 3 January 1936, 4d; 'Una juventad disciplinada y fuerte es la base para tener ejército eficiente', Excélsior, 18 November 1940; Antonio Zozaya, 'Educación física', Excélsior, 23 November 1940.
56. Baudelio Candanedo, Programas Detallados (1928), 29. This and all subsequent translations from the Spanish are by the author unless otherwise noted.
57. 'Un organismo con autonomía', El Nacional, 9 October 1932, 8. Although this article refers to the body as the 'National Athletics Confederation', it seems clear that it was the National Sports Confederation.
58. Memorandum, September 1935: Archive General de la Nación, Mexico City (hereafter AGN), Lázaro Cárdenas 532.2/1.
59. 'Deportes y juegos indígenas', El Nacional, 7 February 1935, 8.
60. I b i d.
61. Such details appear in many editions, but for a typical example, see El maestro rural, vol. 1, no. 1, March 1932, 14-16, which gives movements and lyrics for a dance called 'Matlachines', practised by indigenous groups since early colonial times and recovered by cultural 'missionaries' from the SEP.
62. See, for example: letter from the Comité Agrario of Atexas, Hidalgo, to President Lázaro Cárdenas, 11 September 1936: AGN, Lázaro Cárdenas, 532.2/35; letter from the director of the elementary school in Amanalco de Becerra to President Lázaro Cárdenas, 19 September 1936: AGN, Lázaro Cárdenas, 532.2/36; letter from residents of Acambay to President Lázaro Cárdenas, 15 March 1937: AGN, Lázaro Cárdenas, 532.2/47; letter from residents of San Buenavista, Toluca, to President Lázaro Cárdenas, 25 March 1938: AGN, Lázaro Cárdenas, 532.2/65.
63. Presidential announcement of first 'Juegos nacionales de la Revolución', 7 July 1941: AGN, Manuel Avila Camacho, 532/29; 'Como se haran los Juegos deportivos de la Revolución', El Nacional, 12 August 1941, 4d.
64. Presidential announcement of first 'Juegos nacionales de la Revolución', 7 July 1941: AGN, Manuel Avila Camacho, 532/29; 'Como se haran los Juegos deportivos de la Revolución', El Nacional, 12 August 1941, 4d.
65. 'De la periferia al centro', La Prensa, 7 November 1941, 11. The President did not specify whether he was referring to the centuries of oppression under Spanish colonial rule, or to the more recent repression of Yaquis and Mayans under the Porfiriato.
66. Memorandum, n.d.: AGN, Manuel Avila Camacho, 532/29; 'De la periferia al centro'. See also 'Como se haran los Juegos'; 'Cooperación para de los Juegos de la Revolución', El Universal, 5 September 1941, 4d; Excélsior, 22 November 1941, 12.
67. Memorandum, n.d.: AGN, Manuel Avila Camacho, 532/29; 'De la periferia al centro'. See also 'Como se haran los Juegos'; 'Cooperación para de los Juegos de la Revolución', El Universal, 5 September 1941, 4d; Excélsior, 22 November 1941, 12.
68. Memorandum, n.d.: AGN, Manuel Avila Camacho, 532/29; 'De la periferia al centro'. See also 'Como se haran los Juegos'; 'Cooperación para de los Juegos de la Revolución', El Universal, 5 September 1941, 4d; Excélsior, 22 November 1941, 12.
69. Memorandum, n.d.: AGN, Manuel Avila Camacho, 532/29; 'De la periferia al centro'. See also 'Como se haran los Juegos'; 'Cooperación para de los Juegos de la Revolución', El Universal, 5 September 1941, 4d; Excélsior, 22 November 1941, 12.
70. Memorandum, n.d.: AGN, Manuel Avila Camacho, 532/29; 'De la periferia al centro'. See also 'Como se haran los Juegos'; 'Cooperación para de los Juegos de la Revolución', El Universal, 5 September 1941, 4d; Excélsior, 22 November 1941, 12.
71. Poster, June 1948: AGN, Miguel Alemán, 532.2/4. These responsibilities may well have included the duty to defend la patria through national service: conscription had been introduced during the Second World War.
72. Memorandum, 4 December 1955: AGN, Adolfo Ruíz Cortines, 532/58.
73. See letter from Manuel Velazquez to Beatriz Trueblood, 10 November 1967: AGN, Comité Organizador de los Juegos Olímpicos (COJO), caja 403, 154; see also the speech given by Roberto Casellas to the British Mexican Society, London, 14 May 1968.
74. Author's interview with Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, Mexico City, 24 April 2001; see also Sergio Rivera Conde, 'El diseño en la XIX Olimpíada: entrevista al Arq. Pedro Ramírez Vázquez', Creación y cultura, vol. 1, no. 1, June-August 1999, 13-38.
75. Author's interview with Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, Mexico City, 24 April 2001; see also Sergio Rivera Conde, 'El diseño en la XIX Olimpíada: entrevista al Arq. Pedro Ramírez Vázquez', Creación y cultura, vol. 1, no. 1, June-August 1999, 13-38.
76. For examples in newspapers see: 'Foro de Excélsior', Excélsior, 22 December 1966, and 'Principle unificador', Excélsior, 25 February 1968. See also President Gustavo Díaz Ordaz's inaugural speech to the Assembly of the International Olympic Committee, printed in El sol de México, 8 October 1968, and Eusabio Castro, 'Olímpica 68', in Olga A. Martinez (ed.), Olympiad 68 (Chicago: Illinois State University Press 1971), a poem written in Pindaric odes that compares the Greek and Aztec cultures.
77. For examples in newspapers see: 'Foro de Excélsior', Excélsior, 22 December 1966, and 'Principle unificador', Excélsior, 25 February 1968. See also President Gustavo Díaz Ordaz's inaugural speech to the Assembly of the International Olympic Committee, printed in El sol de México, 8 October 1968, and Eusabio Castro, 'Olímpica 68', in Olga A. Martinez (ed.), Olympiad 68 (Chicago: Illinois State University Press 1971), a poem written in Pindaric odes that compares the Greek and Aztec cultures.
78. For examples in newspapers see: 'Foro de Excélsior', Excélsior, 22 December 1966, and 'Principle unificador', Excélsior, 25 February 1968. See also President Gustavo Díaz Ordaz's inaugural speech to the Assembly of the International Olympic Committee, printed in El sol de México, 8 October 1968, and Eusabio Castro, 'Olímpica 68', in Olga A. Martinez (ed.), Olympiad 68 (Chicago: Illinois State University Press 1971), a poem written in Pindaric odes that compares the Greek and Aztec cultures.
79. For examples in newspapers see: 'Foro de Excélsior', Excélsior, 22 December 1966, and 'Principle unificador', Excélsior, 25 February 1968. See also President Gustavo Díaz Ordaz's inaugural speech to the Assembly of the International Olympic Committee, printed in El sol de México, 8 October 1968, and Eusabio Castro, 'Olímpica 68', in Olga A. Martinez (ed.), Olympiad 68 (Chicago: Illinois State University Press 1971), a poem written in Pindaric odes that compares the Greek and Aztec cultures.
80. See Carta Olímpica. 14: Timbres postales preolímpicos: AGN, COJO, Mexico City.
81. 'El festival mundial de folklore revestirá inusitado esplendor', Novedades, 16 June 1968, 4d. For a good overview of the range of socio-political issues raised by Mexico City's hosting of the Olympic Games, see Joseph L. Arbena, 'Hosting the Summer Olympic Games: Mexico City, 1968', in Joseph Arbena and David LaFrance (eds), Sport in Latin America and the Caribbean (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources 2002).
82. 'El festival mundial de folklore revestirá inusitado esplendor', Novedades, 16 June 1968, 4d. For a good overview of the range of socio-political issues raised by Mexico City's hosting of the Olympic Games, see Joseph L. Arbena, 'Hosting the Summer Olympic Games: Mexico City, 1968', in Joseph Arbena and David LaFrance (eds), Sport in Latin America and the Caribbean (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources 2002).
83. 'Comité Olímpico Mexicano: informe a la asemblea', speech by Dr Josué Sáenz to the General Assembly of the Comité Olímpico Mexicano, 18 December 1967: AGN, COJO, caja 401 Comité Olímpico Mexicano.
84. Carl Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico, 2 vols (London: Macmillan 1903), i.290-94, 431. Foreigners recognized the exceptional capacity of Tarahumara and Tepehuane runners as early as the 1890s when the findings of explorations conducted by Carl Lumholtz were published. More recently, Tarahumara runners gained first, second and third places in the 1993 Leadville 100 (a 100-mile race in Colorado that is recognized as one of the toughest in the world); see also W. Dirk Raat and George. R. Janecek, Mexico's Sierra Tarahumara: A Photohistory of the People of the Edge (Norman and London: University of Oklahoma Press 1996), 62.
85. Carl Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico, 2 vols (London: Macmillan 1903), i.290-94, 431. Foreigners recognized the exceptional capacity of Tarahumara and Tepehuane runners as early as the 1890s when the findings of explorations conducted by Carl Lumholtz were published. More recently, Tarahumara runners gained first, second and third places in the 1993 Leadville 100 (a 100-mile race in Colorado that is recognized as one of the toughest in the world); see also W. Dirk Raat and George. R. Janecek, Mexico's Sierra Tarahumara: A Photohistory of the People of the Edge (Norman and London: University of Oklahoma Press 1996), 62.
86. The rebels took the name of the famous revolutionary Emiliano Zapata
87. Roger Bartra, 'The problem of the native peoples and the indigenist ideology', in Race and Class in Post-colonial Society (Paris: UNESCO 1977), quoted in William Canak and Laura Swanson, Modern Mexico (Boston: McGraw Hill 1998), 92.
88. Roger Bartra, 'The problem of the native peoples and the indigenist ideology', in Race and Class in Post-colonial Society (Paris: UNESCO 1977), quoted in William Canak and Laura Swanson, Modern Mexico (Boston: McGraw Hill 1998), 92.
89. Claire Brewster's interview with Carlos Monsiváis, London, 1995, in Claire Brewster, Responses to Crises: The Political Writing of Four Mexican Authors, 1968-1995 (forthcoming).
90. Guillermo de la Peña, 'La ciudadanía étnica en el México contemporáneo', Revista international de filosofía política, vol. 6, 1995, 116-40; Guillermo de la Peña, lecture delivered at the University of Cambridge, January 2000.
91. June Nash, 'The reassertion of indigenous identity: Mayan responses to state intervention in Chiapas', Latin American Research Review, vol. 30, no. 3, 1995, 7-41.
92. Jan Rus and Robert Wasserstrom, 'Civil-religious hierarchies in central Chiapas: a critical perspective', American Ethnologist, vol. 7, no. 3, 1980, 466-78.