Bracing for Armageddon: Why Civil Defense Never Worked

Bracing for Armageddon: Why Civil Defense Never Worked

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 1-256

  Garrison, Dee ^a  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Air raid drill; Civil defense; Cold War; Duck and cover; Nuclear age; Nuclear attack

Indexed keywords

EID: 44049107486     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195183191.001.0001     Document Type: Book

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67. Joan Baez, And a Voice to Sing with: A Memoir (New York: Summit, 1987), 42.
68. Brown, "A Is for Atom," 90.
69. Carey, "The Schools and Civil Defense," 122.
70. Oakes, Imaginary War, 47-61.
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72. Grossman, Neither Dead Nor Red.
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77. Oakes, Imaginary War, 47-51.
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80. Oakes, Imaginary War, 56, 69-71.
81. Boyer, By the Bomb'sEarly Light, 331-33.
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86. Janis, Air War and Emotional Stress, 199-203, 233-57.
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128. "FEMA Employee Says Agency Destroyed Gay List to Save Face," Portland Oregonian, May 20, 1992, A10.
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138. Larry Lipman and Elliot Jaspin, "Disaster Agency Ready for War," Cox News Service, February 21, 1993.
139. Also see, for example, "Unmasked: FEMA's Eyes Are on Doomsday," Oregonian, February 23, 1993, A1.
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143. "FEMA's Focus Found to Be on Armageddon," St. Petersburg Times, February 23, 1993, 1A.
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199. John Minnion and Philip Bolsolver, eds., The CND Story: The First 25 Years of CND in the Words of the People Involved (London: Allison and Busby, 1983).
200. Wittner, Resisting the Bomb, 55-56.
201. Charles Chatfield, The American Peace Movement: Ideals and Activism (New York: Twayne, 1992), 100-116.
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205. Larry Scott, "A Desperate Appeal to American Pacifists," Spring 1959, Box 1, Scott Papers, SCPC.
206. Jim Peck, "Biggest Civil Disobedience Action," WRL News, May-June 1960, p. 1.
207. Dan Wakefield, "Good-by[e] New York: New York Prepares for Annihilation," Esquire, August 1960, 79-85.
208. Murray Kempton, "Laughter in the Park," New York Post.
209. Maurice Isserman, If I Had a Hammer: The Death of the Old Left and the Birth of the New Left (New York: Basic, 1987), 147.
210. Young in Congressional Record (105-11), July 30, 1959, 14705, 14708-9.
211. Kerr, Civil Defense in the U.S., 114.
212. Richard Wayne Dyke, Mr. Atomic Energy: Congressman Chet Holifield and Atomic Energy Affairs, 1945-1974 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1989), 183-219.
213. Gene Levine and John Modell, "American Public Opinion and the Fall-out Shelter Issue," Public Opinion Quarterly 2 (Summer 1965): 270-79.
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216. Robert Jervis, The Meaning of the Nuclear Revolution: Statecraft and the Prospect of Armageddon (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989).
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218. Lawrence Freedman, The Evolution of U.S. Nuclear Strategy, 2d ed. (New York: St. Martin's, 1989).
219. Eric Mlyn, The State, Society, and Limited Nuclear War (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995).
220. Scott Sagan, Moving Targets: Nuclear Strategy and National Security (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989).
221. Spurgeon Keeny and Wolfgang Panofsky, "From MAD to NUTS," Foreign Affairs 59 (Winter 1981-82): 287-304.
222. Edward Rhodes, Power and Madness: The Logic of Nuclear Coercion (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989).
223. Charles S. Glaser, Nuclear Arguments: Understanding the Strategic Nuclear Arms and Arms Control Debates, ed. Lynn Eden and Steven E. Miller (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989).
224. Herman Kahn, On Thermonuclear War (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960).
225. Jonathan Schell, The Gift of Time: The Case for Abolishing Nuclear Weapons Now (New York: Holt, 1998), 10.
226. James Stegenga, "Nuclearism and Democracy," Journal of American Culture 11 (Spring 1988): 93.
227. Stansfield Turner, Caging the Nuclear Genie: An American Challenge for Global Security (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997), 9.
228. Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons since 1940 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998), 3.
229. Stewart L. Udall, The Myths of August: A Personal Exploration of Our Tragic Cold War Affair with the Atom (New York: Pantheon, 1994), 345.
230. Richard Gid Powers, "Introduction," in Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Secrecy:The American Experience (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998), 2.
231. Glenn T. Seaborg, "Secrecy Runs Amok," Science 264 (June 3, 1994): 1410.
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233. Wes D. Gehring, American Dark Comedy: Beyond Satire (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1996), 4.
234. Walter Kerr, Tragedy and Comedy (New York: Da Capo, 1985).
235. Sanford Gottlieb, "Campaigning for Peace," BAS 18 (November 1962): 38-39.
236. Lawrence S. Wittner, Resisting the Bomb: A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997), 263.
237. Margot A. Henriksen, Dr. Strangelove's America: Society and Culture in the Atomic Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 212.
238. Blanche Wiesen Cook, "First Comes the Lie: C. D. Jackson and Political Warfare," Radical History Review 31 (1984): 42-70.
239. Robert E. Herzstein, Henry R. Luce: A Political Portrait of the Man Who Created the American Century (New York: Scribner's, 1994).
240. James L. Baughman, Henry R. Luce and the Rise of American News Media (Boston, Mass.: Twayne, 1987).
241. Cary Reich, The Life of Nelson A. Rockefeller: Worlds to Conquer, 1908-1958 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1996), 656.
242. Michael Kramer and Sam Roberts, I Never Wanted to Be Vice-President of Anything! An Investigative Biography of Nelson Rockefeller (New York:Basic, 1976), 219.
243. Peter Collier and David Horowitz, The Rockefellers: An American Dynasty (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), n. 344.
244. Ralph Lapp, "Rockefeller's Civil Defense Program," BAS 16 (April 1960): 134-36.
245. Joseph Persico, The Imperial Rockefeller: A Biography of Nelson A. Rockefeller (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982).
246. Herman Kahn, On Thermonuclear War (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960).
247. Thinking about the Unthinkable (New York: Horizon, 1962).
248. On Escalation: Metaphors and Scenarios (New York: Praeger, 1965).
249. Jeffrey D. Porro, "The Policy War: Brodie vs. Kahn," BAS 38 (June-July 1982): 16-19.
250. Spencer R. Weart, "History of American Attitudes to Civil Defense," in Civil Defense: A Choice of Disasters, ed. John Dowling and Evans M. Harrell (New York: American Institute of Physics, 1987), 21.
251. Nelson Rockefeller, "Purpose and Policy," Foreign Affairs 38 (1960): 370-90.
252. Elizabeth Walker Mechling and Jay Mechling, "The Campaign for Civil Defense and the Struggle to Naturalize the Bomb," Western Journal of Speech Communication 55 (Spring 1991): 105-33.
253. Theodore Sorenson, Kennedy (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 613-14.
254. Wayne Blanchard, American Civil Defense, 1945-75 (Washington, D.C.: FEMA, 1980), 277-79.
255. Blanchard, American Civil Defense, 304, 272-74.
256. Thomas Kerr, Civil Defense in the U.S.: Bandaid for a Holocaust? (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1983), 116-17.
257. Amy Swerdlow, Women Strike for Peace: Traditional Motherhood and Radical Politics in the 1960s (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
258. Amy Swerdlow, "Ladies' Day at the Capitol: Women Strike for Peace versus HUAC," Feminist Studies 8 (Fall 1982): 493-520.
259. Saul Alinsky, Rules for Radicals: A Practical Primer for Realistic Radicals (New York: Vintage, 1972).
260. David Garrow, The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It: The Memoir of Ann Gibson Robinson (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987).
261. "Gun Thy Neighbor," Time, August 18, 1961, 58.
262. L. C. McHugh, "Ethics at the Shelter Door," America (September 30, 1961): 824-26.
263. "Shelter Morality," Commonweal 27 (October 1961): 109.
264. Bruce Watson, "We Couldn't Run, So We Hoped We Could Hide," Smithsonian (April 1994): 47-58.
265. Norman Cousins, "Shelters, Survival, and Common Sense," Saturday Review (October 21, October 28, and November 4, 1961).
266. God and the H-Bomb, ed. Donald Keys (New York: Bellmeadows, 1961).
267. Kenneth D. Rose, One Nation Underground: The Fallout Shelter in American Culture (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 191.
268. Henriksen, Dr. Strangelove's America, 214.
269. Walter Karp, "When Bunkers Last in Backyards Bloomed," American Heritage, February-March 1980, 92.
270. "Aristotle & the Bomb: Red, Dead, or Heroic?" Time, October 13, 1961, 29.
271. Nelson Rockefeller, "Civil Defense in a Nuclear War," April 2, 1962, 1962, 1226, PPGR.
272. Gerard Piel, "The Illusion of Civil Defense," BAS 18 (February 1962): 2.
273. Gerard Piel, "On the Feasibility of Peace," Science 135 (February 23, 1962): 648-52.
274. David Singer, "Deterrence and Shelters," BAS 17 (October 1961): 310-15.
275. Don Oberdorfer, "Survival of the Fewest," advance copy (later published in Saturday Evening Post), White House Central Files, Box 597, JFKL.
276. "The Fallout Shelter," Consumer Reports, January 1962, 8.
277. Linus Pauling, "Colossal Deception: Why I Am Opposed to Fallout Shelters," Liberation, November 1961, 4-6.
278. "Open Letter to President Kennedy"
279. Foster Haily, "200 Professors Say Shelters Invite War," both in New York Times, November 10, 1961.
280. Norman Cousins, "Shelters, Survival and Common Sense," Saturday Review, October 1, 1961.
281. James Reston, "Those Sweet and Kindly Shelter Builders," NYT, November 12, 1961, E8.
282. Margaret Mead, "Are Shelters the Answer?" NYT Magazine, November 26, 1961.
283. "Carlino Concedes He Got Legal Fees," NYT, November 23, 1961, sec. 1, 1.
284. "Albany Report: A Weekly Review of the New York State Legislature," January 1, 1962, in Box 21, SANE, SCPC
285. Mark Lane, "Serving Two Masters," Liberation, January 1962, 12-14.
286. Mark Lane, "Campaigning Legislator," NYT, December 22, 1961, 10.
287. "Carlino Accused on Shelter Bill," NYT, November 21, 1961, 30.
288. "The Carlino Symptom," NYT, November 24, 1961, 30.
289. "Legislative Ethics," NYT, December 2, 1961, 22.
290. Clayton Knowles, "Carlino Accused of Divulging Bill," NYT, December 22, 1961, 1.
291. Kerr, Civil Defense in the U.S., 125-29.
292. Blanchard, American Civil Defense, 308-9.
293. Jerome Wiesner, Where Science and Politics Meet (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), 293-94.
294. Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 313-14.
295. Kai Bird, The Color of Truth: McGeorge Bundy and William Bundy, Brothers in Arms: A Biography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998).
296. Arthur A. Schlesinger, Jr., A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965), 749.
297. Seymour Melman, ed., No Place to Hide:Fact and Fiction about Fallout Shelters (New York: Grove, 1962).
298. Ronald Steel, "The Cost of Survival," Commonweal (October 13, 1961): 63-66.
299. "The Fallout Shelter," Consumer Reports, January 1962, 8-14.
300. Sidney Lens, "The Case against Civil Defense," special issue of the Progressive (February 1962).
301. Herman Kahn, Erich Fromm, and Michael Maccoby, "The Question of Civil Defense: A Debate," Commentary 33 (January 1962): 1-23.
302. Wittner, Resisting the Bomb, 362.
303. Christopher Driver, The Disarmers: A Study in Protest (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1964), 120, 126, 185.
304. Duncan Campbell, War Plan UK: The Truth about Civil Defense in Britain (London: Burnett, 1983).
305. Richard Taylor, Against the Bomb: The British Peace Movement, 1958-65 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1988).
306. Richard Taylor and Colin Pritchard, The Protest Makers: The British Nuclear Disarmament Movement of 1958-65 Twenty Years On (New York: Pergamon, 1980).
307. "Civil Defense Cut Backed in Oregon," NYT, May 25, 1963, 6.
308. "Civil Defense Called 'Useless,' Is Eliminated by Portland, Ore.," NYT, May 24, 1963, 1.
309. "Surprise Vote Kills Civil Defense in the City," Oregonian, May 22, 1963, 1.
310. "Deer Hunt Trip Silences Radio during Storm," Oregonian, March 10, 1963, 1.
311. "Portland Chided on Civil Defense," NYT, June 22, 1963, 23.
312. "Portland Official Led Successful Fight against Civil Defense," Seattle Times, June 17, 1963, 1:6.
313. "Oregon Votes End to Civil Defense," NYT, May 28, 1963, 15.
314. Spencer Weart, "History of American Attitudes to Civil Defense," in Civil Defense: A Choice of Disasters, ed. John Dowling and Evans M. Harrell (New York: American Institute of Physics, 1987), 24.
315. Thomas Kerr, Civil Defense in the U.S.: Bandaid for a Holocaust? (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1983), 134.
316. Wayne Blanchard, American Civil Defense, 1945-1975: The Evolution of Programs and Policies (Washington, D.C.: FEMA, 1980), 428-29.
317. Henry M. Jackson, "From Activism to Apathy: The American People and Nuclear Weapons, 1963-80," Journal of American History 70 (March 1984): 821-44.
318. Kerr, Civil Defense in the U. S., 132.
319. Morton Halperin, "The Decision to Deploy the ABM: Bureaucratic and Domestic Politics in the Johnson Administration," World Politics 25 (October 1972): 62-96.
320. Peter Pringle and William Arkin, SIOP: The Secret U.S. Plan for Nuclear War (New York: Norton, 1983).
321. Blanchard, American Civil Defense, 369-70.
322. Spencer Weart, "History of American Attitudes to Civil Defense," in Civil Defense: A Choice of Disasters, ed. John Dowling and Evans M. Harrell (New York: American Institute of Physics, 1987), 24.
323. Thomas Kerr, Civil Defense in the U.S.: Bandaid for a Holocaust? (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1983), 134.
324. Wayne Blanchard, American Civil Defense, 1945-1975: The Evolution of Programs and Policies (Washington, D.C.: FEMA, 1980), 428-29.
325. Henry M. Jackson, "From Activism to Apathy: The American People and Nuclear Weapons, 1963-80," Journal of American History 70 (March 1984): 821-44.
326. Kerr, Civil Defense in the U. S., 132.
327. Morton Halperin, "The Decision to Deploy the ABM: Bureaucratic and Domestic Politics in the Johnson Administration," World Politics 25 (October 1972): 62-96.
328. Peter Pringle and William Arkin, SIOP: The Secret U.S. Plan for Nuclear War (New York: Norton, 1983).
329. Blanchard, American Civil Defense, 369-70.
330. Paul Dickson, Think Tanks (New York: Atheneum, 1971), 106-7, 90-116.
331. Detailed information on the GAO findings, including a reply by Kahn, are in General Accounting Office, Observations on the Administration by the Office of Civil Defense of Research Study Contracts Awarded to Hudson Institute, Inc.: Report to the Congress on the Department of the Army by the Comptroller General of the United States (Washington, D.C.: GPO, March 25, 1968).
332. Ronald Steel, "Up the Doomsday Ladder," New York Review of Books, July 15, 1963.
333. Basil McDermott, "Thinking about Herman Kahn," Journal of Conflict Resolution 14 (March 1971): 55-71.
334. Jeffrey D. Porro, "The Policy War: Brodie vs. Kahn," BAS 18 (June-July 1982): 16-19.
335. Stanley Blumberg and Louis G. Panos, Edward Teller: Giant of the Golden Age of Physics (New York: Scribner's, 1990).
336. Edward Teller with Julie Shoolery, Memoirs: A Twentieth Century Journal in Science and Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus, 2001).
337. Dan O'Neill, The Firecracker Boys (New York: St. Martin's, 1994).
338. Frank Von Hippel, "The Myths of Edward Teller," BAS 39 (March 1983): 6-12.
339. Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons since 1940 (Washington, D.C.:Brookings Institution Press, 1998), 286.
340. Eugene Rabinowitch and Ruth Adam, eds., Debate: The Anti-Ballistic Missile (Chicago: Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 1967).
341. John Newhouse, Cold Dawn: Story of SALT (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973), 98.
342. Gerard H. Clarfield and William M. Wiecek, Nuclear America: Military and Civilian Power in the U.S., 1940-1980 (New York:Harper and Row, 1984), 302.
343. Joan Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered (New York:Basic, 1994).
344. U.S. General Accounting Office, Activities and Status of Civil Defense in the United States: Report to the Congress by the Comptroller General of the United States (Washington, D.C.: GPO, October 26, 1971), 14, 23.
345. Schwartz, Atomic Audit, 289.
346. James R. Schlesinger, Annual Defense Department Report (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1974), 38.
347. Terry Terriff, The Nixon Administration and the Making of U.S. Nuclear Strategy (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995).
348. Lynn Davis, Limited Nuclear Options: Deterrence and the New American Doctrine (London: IISS, 1976).
349. James Schlesinger, Charles Horner, and Casper Weinberger, Rebuilding America's Military Strength:Recommendations for the New Administration (Washington, D.C.: Heritage Foundation, 2001).
350. Richard Nixon, A Report to Congress: U.S. Foreign Policy for the 1970s:A New Strategy for Peace (Washington, D.C.: GPO, February 18, 1970), 122.
351. Nolan, Guardians of the Arsenal, 26-27.
352. Sidney Drell, Arthur Broyles, and Eugene Wigner, "Civil Defense and Limited War: A Debate," Physics Today 29 (April 1976), 46.
353. William Kinkade, "Repeating History: The Civil Defense Debate Renewed," International Security 2 (1978): 99-120.
354. Paul Boyer, Promises to Keep: The United States since World War II (New York: Heath, 1995), 418.
355. Peter Bourne, Jimmy Carter:A Comprehensive Biography from Plains to Post-Presidency (New York:Scribner's, 1997).
356. Frances Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars, and the End of the Cold War (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), 80.
357. William Beecher, "High Level Study Says CIA Understates Extent of Soviet Threat," Boston Globe, December 17, 1976.
358. Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue, 83, 91.
359. Strobe Talbot, Master of the Game: Paul Nitze and the Nuclear Peace (New York: Knopf, 1998), 139-40, 144-47.
360. Robert Scheer, With Enough Shovels: Reagan, Bush and Nuclear War (New York: Random House, 1982), 53-65.
361. Paul Nitze, From Hiroshima to Glasnost (New York:Grove Weidenfeld, 1989), 352-54.
362. Janne Nolan, Guardians of the Arsenal:The Politics of Nuclear Strategy (New York: Basic, 1989).
363. Jerry W. Sanders, Peddlers of Crisis: The Committee on the Present Danger and the Politics of Containment (Boston: South End, 1983).
364. Richard Pipes, "Team B: The Reality behind the Myth," Commentary 73 (October 1986): 25-41.
365. "Why the Soviets Think They Can Fight and Win a Nuclear War," Commentary 64 (June 1977): 21-34.
366. John Prados, "Team B: The Trillion Dollar Experiment," BAS 49 (April 1993), 23, 27-31.
367. Robert Scheer, With Enough Shovels: Reagan, Bush and Nuclear War (New York: Random House, 1982), 60.
368. Talbot, Master of the Game, 146.
369. Sanders, Peddlers of Crisis, 198, 203.
370. Talbot, Master of the Game.
371. David Callahan, Dangerous Capabilities:Paul Nitze and the Cold War (New York: HarperCollins, 1990).
372. Paul Nitze, From Hiroshima to Glasnost: At the Center of Decision: A Memoir (New York:Grove Weidenfeld, 1989).
373. Paul Nitze, "Assuring Strategic Stability in an Era of Detente," Foreign Affairs 54 (January 1976): 207-32.
374. Edward Zuckerman, The Day after World War III (New York:Viking, 1984), 252.
375. Civil Defense in the Soviet Union (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962).
376. Edward Teller, "On the Brink," NYT, February 3, 1980, E21.
377. J. M. Weinstein, "Soviet Civil Defense and the U.S. Deterrent," Parameters, March 1982, 70-83.
378. Louis Rene Beres, "Surviving Nuclear War: U.S. Plans for Crisis Relocation," Armed Forces and Society 12 (Fall 1985): 75-94.
379. Lawrence Vale, The Limits of Civil Defense in the USA, Switzerland, Britain, and the Soviet Union (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 189-94.
380. Fred Kaplan, "The Soviet Civil Defense Myth," parts 1 and 2, in BAS 34 (March 1978): 14-20, and (April 1978): 48-51.
381. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Armed Services, Hearings, Civil Defense Review, 94th Cong., 2d sess., 1976.
382. Jones, NYT, April 1, 1982, 17.
383. Defense Industrial Base, Industrial Preparedness and Nuclear War Survival: Hearings before Joint Committee on Defense Production, 94th Cong., 2d sess. (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1976).
384. W. K. H. Panovsky, Civil Preparedness and Limited Nuclear War, congressional testimony before Joint Committee on Defense Production, 94th Cong., 2d sess. (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1976).
385. Kerr, Civil Defense in the U.S., 157-59.
386. Jeffrey D. Porro, "The Policy War: Brodie vs. Kahn," BAS 38 (June-July 1982): 16-19.
387. Herman Kahn, On Thermonuclear War (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960).
388. Thinking about the Unthinkable (New York: Avon, 1962).
389. Colin Gray and Keith Payne, "Victory Is Possible," Foreign Policy 39 (Summer 1980): 14-27.
390. Nolan, Guardians of the Arsenal, 131.
391. Raymond Garthoff, Detente and Confrontation: American Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1985), 787-88.
392. Eric Mlyn, The State, Society, and Limited Nuclear War (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995), 115.
393. Huntington testimony, Civil Defense in the 1980s, Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, U.S. Senate, January 8, 1979.
394. Vale, The Limits of Civil Defense, 74-78.
395. Thomas Powers, "Choosing a Strategy for World War III," Atlantic 250 (November 1982): 82-110.
396. Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle:Memoirs of the National Security Advisor, 1977-1981 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1983).
397. Henry Kissinger, The Necessity for Choice:Prospects of American Foreign Policy (New York: Harper and Row, 1961).
398. Nolan, Guardians of the Arsenal, 129-39.
399. Richard Burt, "Carter Adopts a Plan to Bolster Civil Defense," NYT, November 13, 1978, Al.
400. Bernard Weinraub, "Carter Plans to Limit Civil Defense Budget," NYT, December 28, 1978, Al.
401. John Dowling, "FEMA Programs, Problems, and Accomplishments," in Civil Defense: A Choice of Disasters, ed. John Dowling and Evans M. Harrell (New York: American Institute of Physics, 1987), 33-47.
402. Garthoff, Detente and Confrontation, 790 n.111.
403. J. Richelson, "PD-59, NS DO-13 and the Reagan Strategic Modernization Program," Journal of Strategic Studies 6, no. 2 (1983): 125-46.
404. Louis Renee Beres, "Presidential Directive 59: A Critical Assessment," Parameters: Journal of the U.S. Army War College (March 1981): 29-37.
405. Richard Burt, "The New Strategy for Nuclear War: How It Evolved," NYT, August 13, 1980, A3.
406. Scheer, With Enough Shovels, 105-6.
407. Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue, 107.
408. Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 499-512, 523-24.
409. Richard L. Miller, Under the Cloud: The Decades of Nuclear Testing (New York: Free Press, 1986), 107-19.
410. Robert Oppenheimer, "Atomic Weapons and American Policy," Foreign Affairs 31 (July 1953): 529.
411. Albert Einstein, Oxford Dictionary of Quotations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 268.
412. Stewart L. Udall, The Myths of August: A Personal Exploration of Our Tragic Cold War Affair with the Atom (New York: Pantheon, 1994), 301-8.
413. Sakharov complete text in NYT, July 28, 1968.
414. Andrei Sakharov, Memoirs (New York: Knopf, 1990).
415. Discussion of the effects of a hydrogen bomb is drawn from several major sources, especially Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress, The Effects of Nuclear War (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979).
416. Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan, eds., The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense and Energy, Research and Development Administration, 1977).
417. The Nuclear Almanac: Confronting the Atom in War and Peace, compiled and edited by faculty members at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1984), esp. part 2.
418. Arthur M. Katz, Life after Nuclear War (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1982).
419. Robert Ehdich, Waging Nuclear Peace: The Technology and Politics of Nuclear Weapons (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985).
420. Nicholas Wade, A World beyond Healing:The Prologue and Aftermath of Nuclear War (New York: Norton, 1987).
421. Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons since 1940 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998).
422. Stansfield Turner, Caging the Nuclear Genie: An American Challenge for Global Security (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997), 125-49.
423. William Daugherty, Barbara Levi, and Frank von Hippel, "The Consequences of 'Limited' Nuclear Attacks on the United States," International Security 10, no. 4 (Spring 1986):19.
424. A must exercise for students of this subject is found on www.pbs.org/ wgbh/amex/bomb/sfeature/mapablast.htm.
425. Robert Scheer, With Enough Shovels: Reagan, Bush and Nuclear War (New York: Random House, 1982), 16-17.
426. C. M. Haaland, C. V. Chester, and E. P. Wigner, Survival of the Relocated Population of the U.S. after a Nuclear Attack, Report ORNL-5041, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency (Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service, 1976), 20-21.
427. Jeannie Peterson, ed., The Aftermath: The Human and Ecological Consequences of Nuclear War (New York: Pantheon, 1983).
428. Ruth Adams and Susan Cullen, eds., The Final Epidemic: Physicians and Scientists on Nuclear War (Chicago: Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, 1981).
429. Kosta Tsipis, Arsenal: Understanding Weapons in the Nuclear Age (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 101.
430. Richard L. Miller, Under the Cloud: The Decades of Nuclear Testing (New York: Free Press, 1986), 58-59, 90-91.
431. Harold L. Rosenberg, Atomic Soldiers: American Victims of Nuclear Experiments (Boston: Beacon, 1980).
432. The Myths of August: A Personal Exploration of Our Tragic Cold War Affair with the Atom (New York: Pantheon, 1994), 229.
433. Philip L. Fradkin, Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1989).
434. Howard Ball, Justice Downwind: America's Atomic Testing Program in the 1950s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
435. Carole Gallagher, American Ground Zero: The Secret Nuclear War (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1993).
436. A. Constandina Titus, Bombs in the Backyard: Atomic Testing and American Politics (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1986).
437. Richard Pfau, No Sacrifice Too Great: The Life of Lewis L. Strauss (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984), 190.
438. Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 583-84.
439. Campbell Craig, Destroying the Village: Eisenhower and Thermonuclear War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), introductory page, 56, 41-53.
440. Richard Immerman, "Confessions of an Eisenhower Revisionist:An Agonizing Reappraisal," Diplomatic History 3 (Summer 1990): 319-42.
441. John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (New York:Oxford University Press, 1997), 232.
442. Blanchard, American Civil Defense, 117.
443. Thomas J. Kerr, Civil Defense in the U.S.: Bandaid for a Holocaust? (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1983), 81-82.
444. Blanchard, American Civil Defense, 113, 128.
445. Gerald H. Clarfield and William M. Wiecek, Nuclear America: Military and Civilian Nuclear Power in the United States, 1940-1980 (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), 206-9.
446. Ralph E. Lapp, "Civil Defense Faces New Peril," BAS 10 (November 1954): 349-51.
447. "Radioactive Fallout," BAS 10 (February 1955): 45-51.
448. Lapp, The New Force: The Story of Atoms and People (New York: Harper and Row, 1953).
449. Atoms and People (New York: Harper and Row, 1956).
450. Lawrence S. Wittner, Resisting the Bomb: A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement, 1954-1970 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997), 137.
451. William Lanouette with Bela Szilard, Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilard: The Man behind the Bomb (New York: Scribner's, 1992), 460.
452. Robert Divine, Blowing on the Wind: The Nuclear Test Debate, 1954-1960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 33-56, 59, 57.
453. Miller, Under the Cloud, 230.
454. Willard Libby, "The Facts about A-Bomb Fallout," U.S. News and World Report, March 25, 1955, 21-26.
455. Harvey Wasserman and Norman Solomon, Killing Our Own: The Disaster of America's Experiment with Atomic Radiation (New York: Delacorte, 1982), 77, 92.
456. "The Russell-Einstein Manifesto," reprinted in J. Roblat, Scientists in the Quest for Peace: A History of the Pugwash Conferences (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1972).
457. Wittner, Resisting the Bomb, 6-7.
458. William Epstein and Lucy Webster, eds., We Can Avert a Nuclear War (Cambridge, Mass.: Oelgeschlager, Gunn and Hain, 1983), commemorating the twenty-fifth anniversary of the first Pugwash.
459. George W. Beadle, "Liquidating Unpopular Opinion," Science, October 28, 1955, 813.
460. Wasserman and Solomon, Killing Our Own, 213.
461. Civil Defense for National Survival: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, 84th Cong., 2d sess., 7 parts (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1956).
462. Hereafter, Civil Defense for National Survival.
463. Blanchard, American Civil Defense.
464. Kerr, Civil Defense in the U.S.
465. Richard Wayne Dyke, Mr. Atomic Energy: Congressman Chet Holifield and Atomic Energy Affairs, 1945-1974 (New York: Greenwood, 1989).
466. Chet Holifield, conducted by Enid Douglass, April 25 and May 7, 1975, in Graduate School Library, Claremont College, California; Oral Histories, Chet Holifield interview, 1975, JFKL.
467. Mary Simpson, "A Long Hard Look at Civil Defense: A Review of the Holifield Committee Hearings," BAS 12 (November 1956): 346.
468. James W. Deer, "The Unavoidable International Shelter Race," BAS (February 1957): 66-67.
469. Civil Defense for National Survival, Part 4, 1227-28.
470. Gayle Greene, The Woman Who Knew Too Much: Alice Stewart and the Secrets of Radiation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999).
471. William Cuyler Sullivan, Nuclear Democracy: A History of the Greater St. Louis Citizen's Committee for Nuclear Information, 1957-67 (St. Louis, Mo.:Washington University, 1982), 8.
472. Alan Smith, "Democracy and the Politics of Information: The St. Louis Committee for Nuclear Information," (St. Louis Missouri Historical Society) Gateway Heritage (Summer 1966): 5.
473. Harriet Hyman Alonso, Peace as a Women's Issue: A History of the U.S. Movement for World Peace and Women's Rights (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1993).
474. Lawrence S. Wittner, Rebels against War: The American Peace Movement, 1933-1983 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984).
475. Scott H. Bennett, "Radical Pacifism and the General Strike against War:Jessie Wallace Hugnan, the Founding of the War Resisters League, and the Socialist Origins of Secular Radical Pacifism in America," Peace and Change (July 2001): 352-73.
476. Scott H. Bennett, Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Non-Violence in America, 1915-1963 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2003).
477. Nancy L. Roberts, Dorothy Day and the Catholic Worker (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984).
478. Mel Piehl, Breaking Bread: The Catholic Worker and the Origin of Catholic Radicalism in America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982).
479. William D. Miller, A Harsh and Dreadful Love: Dorothy Day and the Catholic Worker Movement (New York: Liveright, 1973).
480. Patrick Coy, A Revolution of the Heart: Essays on the Catholic Worker (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988).
481. William J. Thorn, Philip Runkel, and Susan Mountin, eds., Dorothy Day and the Catholic Worker Movement: Centenary Essays (Milwaukee, Wis.: Marquette University, 2001).
482. Ammon Hennacy, The Book of Ammon: The Autobiography of a Unique American Rebel (Salt Lake City, Utah: Ammon Hennacy Publications, 1970).
483. Nat Hentoff, Peace Agitator: The Story of A. J. Muste (New York: Macmillan, 1963).
484. Jo Ann Robinson, Abraham Went Out: A Biography of A. J. Muste (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1981).
485. Dan Wakefield, New York in the Fifties (New York: Houghton Mifflin/ Seymour Lawrence, 1992), 80.
486. Jervis Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen: A Biography (New York: HarperCollins, 1997).
487. Daniel Levine, Bayard Rustin and the Civil Rights Movement (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2000).
488. John D'Emilio, Lost Prophet: The Life and Times of Bayard Rustin (New York: Free Press, 2003).
489. Bennett, Radical Pacifism, also explores the Gandhian theme.
490. James Peck, Underdogs vs. Upperdogs (New York: AMP&R, 1980).
491. Victor Turner, Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1974).
492. David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988).
493. Guy Oakes, The Imaginary War: Civil Defense and American Cold War Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 84-105.
494. "Peoria Ignores Alert," NYT, June 16, 1955, 16.
495. Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons since 1940 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998), 207-16.
496. Ted Gup, "Doomsday Hideaway," Time, December 9, 1991, 26-29.
497. "The Doomsday Blueprints," Time, August 10, 1992, 26-41.
498. "How the Federal Emergency Management Agency Learned to Stop Worrying about Civilians and Love the Bomb," Mother Jones, January 1, 1994.
499. "The Doomsday Plan," the cover story of Time, August 10, 1992, 32-39.
500. Michael Schuman, "The Under Sanctum," Philadelphia Inquirer, December 2, 2001, 1, 14.
501. Bill Gifford, "Bunker? What Bunker?" NYT Magazine, December 3, 2000, 132-33.
502. N. J. McCamley, Cold War Secret Nuclear Bunkers: The Passive Defense of the Western World during the Cold War (Barnsley, U.K.: Cooper, 2002).
503. Frances Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars, and the End of the Cold War (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), 98.
504. Charles Tyroler, ed., Alerting America: The Papers of the Committee on the Present Danger (New York:Pergamon-Brassey's, 1984).
505. Jerry W. Sanders, Peddlers of Crisis: The Committee on the Present Danger and the Politics of Containment (Boston: South End, 1983), 286.
506. Robert Scheer, With Enough Shovels: Reagan, Bush and Nuclear War (New York: Random House, 1982), 105.
507. Jennifer Leaning, Civil Defense in the Nuclear Age: What Purpose Does It Serve and What Survival Does It Promise? (Boston: Physicians for Social Responsibility, 1982), 5.
508. Scheer, With Enough Shovels, 32, 141-42.
509. John Hassard, "Maintaining Perceptions: Crisis Relocation in the Planning of Nuclear War," in Civil Defense: A Choice of Disasters, ed. John Dowling and Evans M. Harrell (New York: American Institute of Physics, 1987), 91.
510. John Dowling, "FEMA: Programs, Problems, and Accomplishments," in Dowling and Harrell, Civil Defense, 36-38.
511. Edward Zuckerman, The Day after World War III (New York: Viking, 1984), for good general discussion of continuity of government.
512. Zuckerman, The Day after World War III, 97-125.
513. Jennifer Leaning and Langley Keyes, eds., The Counterfeit Ark: Crisis Relocation for Nuclear War (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1984), which also presents a series of essays to show that many national experts deny the validity of CRP assumptions.
514. Leaning and Keyes, Counterfeit Ark, xiv.
515. Mary McGrory, "Heading for the Hills the Hard Way," Washington Post, August 1, 1982, B1.
516. Jack Anderson, "Nuke Survival Plan 'Bizarre,'" Orange Coast Daily Pilot, July 7, 1982, A6.
517. William Raspberry, "There's Nothing Civil about It," Washington Post, April 12, 1982, A15.
518. Clarke, Mission Improbable.
519. Louis Rene Beres, Reason and Realpolitik:U.S. Foreign Policy and World Order (Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1984), 22.
520. Clarke, Mission Improbable, 35-37.
521. Leaning, Civil Defense in the Nuclear Age, 15-33.
522. Charles F. Estes, Jr., testimony before the Senate Committee on Armed Services, 97th Cong., 1st sess., March 30, 1981, 4380-81.
523. William F. Chipman, testimony before House Committee on Armed Services, Military Installations and Facilities Subcommittee, 97th Cong., 1st sess., February 27, 1981, 847.
524. James Ring, "Sheltering from a Nuclear Attack," in Dowling and Harrell, Civil Defense, 79.
525. Kenneth D. Rose, One Nation Underground: The Fallout Shelter in American Culture (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 219.
526. Zuckerman, The Day after World War III, 105.
527. "Civil Defense Relocation Plan Said to Be Dropped," NYT, March 4, 1985, A9.
528. "City Says No to Crisis Relocation," NYT, June 10, 1982, A1.
529. Ben A. Franklin, "Festival Rings with Ridicule of Civil Defense Plan," NYT, May 30, 1982, 20.
530. Zuckerman, The Day after World War III, 108-9.
531. Barry Casper, "Under the Mushroom Cloud," in Dowling and Harrell, Civil Defense, 203-6.
532. Clarke, Mission Improbable, 122.
533. Jack Vieta, "Marin Opts Out for Nuclear War," San Francisco Chronicle, March 17, 1982, 2.
534. Allan Appel, "Burlesque in Burlington," Progressive (February 1983): 36.
535. Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue, 149.
536. Robert Scheer, With Enough Shovels, 18-26, 138-40.
537. "U.S. Could Survive in Administration's View," Los Angeles Times, January 16, 1982.
538. "The Dirt on T. K. Jones," NYT, March 19, 1982, A30.
539. "Capitol Commentary," Journal of Civil Defense 16 (April 1983): 2.
540. Thomas R. Rochon, Mobilizing for Peace: The Antinuclear Movements in Western Europe (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988).
541. John Minnion and Philip Bolsolver, eds., The CND Story: The First Twenty-Five Years of CND (London: Allison and Busby, 1983), 89.
542. E. P. Thompson and Dan Smith, eds., Protest and Survive (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1981).
543. Duncan Campbell, War Plan UK: The Truth about Civil Defense in Britain (London: Burnett, 1982).
544. John Churcher and Elena Lieven, "Images of War and the Public in British Civil Defense," Journal of Social Issues 39 (Spring 1983): 124.
545. John Minnion and Philip Bolsolver, eds., The CND Story: The First 25 Years of CND in the Words of the People Involved (London: Allison and Busby, 1983), 90-93.
546. Frances B. McCrea and Gerald E. Markle, Minutes to Midnight:Nuclear Weapons Protest in America (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1989).
547. David S. Meyer, A Winter of Discontent: The Nuclear Freeze and American Politics (New York: Praeger, 1990).
548. Sam Marrulo and John Lofland, eds., Peace Action in the Eighties (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1990).
549. Lawrence Wittner, Nonprofit Organizations and Nuclear Disarmament, 1971 to the Present, Working Paper Series, Aspen Institute, Winter 2001.
550. J. Michael Hogan, The Nuclear Freeze Campaign: Rhetoric and Foreign Policy in the Telepolitical Age (East Lansing:Michigan State University Press, 1994).
551. Adam M. Garfinkle, The Politics of the Nuclear Freeze (Philadelphia: Foreign Policy Research Institute, 1984).
552. George Kennan, The Nuclear Delusion: Soviet American Relations in the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon, 1983), 236.
553. Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue, 207-8.
554. Alfonso Chardy, "Reagan Aides and the 'Secret' Government," Miami Herald, July 5, 1987.
555. Pete Earley, "Smith Accuses FEMA of Grab for Power," Washington Post, September 3, 1984, A19.
556. William French Smith, Robert McFarlane, August 2, 1984.
557. Louis Giuffrida, Robert McFarlane, August 3, 1984.
558. Ben Bradlee, Guts and Glory: The Rise and Fall of Oliver North (New York: Fine, 1988), 132-35.
559. Steven Emerson, "America's Doomsday Project," U.S. News and World Report, August 7, 1989, 26-30.
560. Jack Anderson, Washington Post, September 7, 1984, E12.
561. Richard Perle, Statement before Subcommittee on Strategic and Theater Nuclear Forces, Senate Armed Services Committee, March 17, 1982, in H. M. Jackson Papers, University of Washington Archives, Seattle.
562. Ronald V. Dellums and H. Lee Halterman, Lying Down with the Lions: A Public Life from the Streets of Oakland to the Halls of Power (Boston: Beacon, 2000).
563. Seattle Times: "Nuclear War Exercises," January 28, 1987, B3.
564. "Oregon Refuses to Join Drill," February 24, 1987, B3.
565. Pete McConnell, "Anti-Nuclear Groups Praise State's Refusal to Take Part in Attack Drill," Seattle Post-Intelligencer, March 3, 1987, D10.
566. Booth Gardner, "Nuclear Civil Defense: Does It Make Sense for States to Prepare for a Nuclear Attack?" State Government News (March 1, 1990): 20.
567. "NW States Can Offer Own Nuclear Attack Drill, Opinion Says," Seattle Post-Intelligencer, March 27, 1987, A11.
568. "Disaster Agency Gets Swift Kick," Seattle Times, April 9, 1987, D3.