Intra-ethnic conflict in Croatia and Serbia: Flanking and the consequences for democracy

East European Quarterly

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 471-494

  Hislope, Robert ^a  

^a Antioch College   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 43349110343     PISSN: 00128449     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 291-306, 340-360.
2. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Ibid., p.346.
3. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Ibid., pp. 342-8, 357, 359.
4. Ivo Banac, "Political Change and National Diversity," Dœdalus, 119:1 (Winter 1990), pp. 141-160;
5. Bogdan Szajkowski, James Gow, et al., Encyclopaedia of Conflicts, Disputes and Flashpoints in Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Successor States (London: Longman Group UK Limited, 1993).
6. Horowitz, pp. 309, 413-440.
7. Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, "Introduction: Comparing Experiences with Democracy," in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988), pp. 6-7.
8. Richard Gunther, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Nikiforos Diamandorous, "Introduction: The Politics of Democratic Consolidation," in Richard Gunther, Nikiforos Diamandorous, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995);
9. Michael Burton, Richard Gunther, and John Higley, "Introduction: Elite Transformations and Democratic Regimes," in John Higley and Richard Gunther, eds., Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 1-37.
10. Burton, Gunther, and Higley, p. 8; John Higley and Michael Burton, "The Elite Variable in Democratic Transitions and Breakdowns," American Sociological Review, 54 (February 1989), pp. 17-32.
11. Milan Jajcinović, "Tko ce nakriviti kapu?" Danas (April 10, 1990), pp. 13-15.
12. For a sample of the HDZ's party platform, see "For A Free and Sovereign Croatia!" East European Reporter (Spring/Summer 1990), pp. 86-7.
13. Borba (April 14-15 1990), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), April 23, 1990, pp. 62-4;
14. Politika (February 26, 1990), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), March 8, 1990, p. 68.
15. Danas (May 1, 1990), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), May 7, 1990, pp. 67-70;
16. Borba (April 18, 1990), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), April 24, 1990, pp. 65-7.
17. The preamble to the 1990 constitution defined Croatia as "the national state of the Croatian nation and a state of members of other nations and minorities who are its citizens: Serbs, Moslems, Slovenes, Czechs, Slovaks, Italians, Jews, and others, who are guaranteed equality with citizens of Croatian nationality...." See "Ustave Republike Hrvatske," Narodne Novine, 56 (December 22, 1990), By this formulation, Croatians were given pride of place as the state-forming nation while Serbs were relegated to an inferior position and equated with politically insignificant nationalities.
18. For an elaboration of this argument, see Robert Hislope, "Nationalism, Ethnic Politics, and Democratic Consolidation: A Comparative Study of Croatia, Serbia, and Bosnia-Hercegovina," Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1995, pp. 155-6, 217-220.
19. "Ustave Republike Hrvatske."
20. Ivo Banac, The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984), pp. 85-9;
21. Mirjana Gross, "Cross National-Integrational Ideologies from the End of Illyrism to the Creation of Yugoslavia," Austrian History Yearbook, 15-16 (1979-1980), pp. 15-21.
22. Zoran Kusovac, "Rat je u Zraku," Vreme (March 2, 1991), pp. 28-30.
23. The Daily Telegraph (November 17, 1991), p. 18.
24. Kosuvac, p. 28; Slobodna Dalmacija (May 9, 1992). in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), May 28. 1992, pp. 57-62;
25. Tanjug (June 18, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), June 20, 1991, p.43.
26. Franjo Tudjman, Nationalism in Contemporary Europe (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), pp. 110-7, 166.
27. Zehrudin Isaković, "Bosanska Vatra za Hrvatske Izbore," Vreme (February 10, 1992), pp. 7-8:
28. Senad Avdić, "Slozna Braca Bosnu Dijele," Vreme (July 20, 1992), pp. 25-7;
29. Patrick Moore, "Croatia and Bosnia: A Tale of Two Bridges," RFE/RL Research Report, 3:1 (January 7, 1994), pp. 113-4;
30. Patrick Moore, "A New Stage in the Bosnian Conflict," RFE/RL Research Report, 3:9 (March 4, 1994), pp. 33-6;
31. Patrick Moore, "The Croatian-Muslim Agreements," RFE/RL Research Report, 1:13 (April 1, 1994). pp. 20-4;
32. Patrick Moore, "Croatia," RFE/RL Research Report, 3:16 (April 22, 1994), pp. 80-2.
33. Moore, "Croatia," p. 81.
34. Vienna Profil (August 3, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), August 3, 1992, pp. 26-7.
35. Tanjug (February 24, 1990), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), March 2, 1990, pp. 89-90;
36. Politika (February 26, 1990), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), March 8, 1990, p. 68;
37. Tanjug (March 14, 1990), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), March 19, 1990, p. 80;
38. Tudjman, p. 106; Mark Thompson. A Paper House: The Ending of Yugoslavia, (New York: Pantheon Books, 1992), pp. 267-9.
39. The Times (November 6, 1991);
40. Borba (January 1-2, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), January 29, 1992, pp. 33-7;
41. Slobodna Dalmacija (May 9, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), May 28, 1992, pp. 60-1.
42. James Gow, "Military-Political Affiliations in the Yugoslav Conflict," RFE/RL Research Report, 1:20 (May 15, 1992), pp. 16-25.
43. There were also a series of gunfights in Zagreb between HSP and HDZ supporters that preceded this. The British Broadcasting Corporation (November 5, 1991).
44. Borba (November 11, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), November 29, 1991, pp. 29-30;
45. The Daily Telegraph (November 17, 1991);
46. The Christian Science Monitor (November 20, 1991).
47. A sample of the 300 criminal charges the government leveled against the HSP reads as follows: murder, money-laundering, damaging Croatia's international image, and "seducing the public with false promises of salvation in a state organized on fascist lines." The Ottawa Citizen (November 5, 1991);
48. The British Broadcasting Corporation (November 6, 1991).
49. Paraga's exact words were "If Vukovar falls, President Franjo Tudjman must fall too." He clarified this, however. by noting that he "has no intention to take violent action," but will "undo President Tudjman on the front by reorganizing the defense of eastern Slavonia." Seditious threats were also issued by the HSP in early November. Milan Vuković warned that if the HDZ outlawed the mobilization drive of the HSP, "then we would have no choice but to initiate civil war." With this same concern in mind, Paraga said "Mr. Tudjman will reap the sour reward of his actions." Paris AFP (November 18, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), November 18, 1991, p. 47;
50. Agence France Presse (November 181, 1991);
51. United Press International (November 15, 1991);
52. The Times (November 6, 1991).
53. The population of Vukovar was 37% Serb and 42% Croat. Half of its inhabitants were from mixed Croat-Serb marriages, and the city itself voted for the communists in the 1990 elections. Borba (January 27, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe). February 18, 1992, pp. 45-7;
54. Borba (December 1, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe). December 13, 1991, pp. 35-6;
55. Danas (December 10, 1991). in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), January 8, 1992, p. 35;
56. Danas (November 26, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), December 16, 1991, pp. 45-7.
57. Bozo Knezević, "KOS i HOS," Vreme (December 2, 1991), pp. 8-9;
58. Slobodna Dalmacija (November 25, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), December 13, 1991, pp. 30-1;
59. Danas (November 26, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), December 16, 1991, pp. 45-8;
60. Danas (December 10, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), January 8, 1992, pp. 35-7;
61. Danas (December 10, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), January 8, 1992, pp. 30-5;
62. Danas (January 7, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), January 30, 1992, pp. 41-4.
63. Zoran Batusic, "The Rights of the Croatian Party of Right," East European Reporter (November/December 1992), pp. 57-9.
64. In October of 1991, the HSP reported a surge of membership and announced the opening of 20 new party branches in the Eastern Slavonian towns of Osijek, Vukovar, Vinkovci, and Nasice. Associated Press (October 24, 1991);
65. Moore, "Croatia and Bosnia: A Tale of Two Bridges," p. 113.
66. The HOS had already carried out two attacks on villages inside Serbia in November. Financial Times (November 7, 1991);
67. Vienna Profil (August 3, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), August 3, 1992, pp. 26-7;
68. Ivo Bicanic and Iva Dominis, "Tudjman Remains Dominant after Croatian Elections," RFE/RL Research Report, 1:37 (September 18, 1992), pp. 20-6.
69. Batusic, pp. 57-9; Novi Vjesnik (June 3, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), June 23, 1992, p. 22.
70. Novi Vjesnik (June 27, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), July 9, 1992, pp. 37-8;
71. Moore, "Croatia," p. 81.
72. At the same time, the party-army of the HSP did constitute a potential threat to the state. It was therefore entirely within the legitimate interests of the HDZ government to force its incorporation into official military structures.
73. Danas (November 12, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), December 17, 1991, pp. 54-6;
74. Borba (November 6, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), November 29, 1991, pp. 29-30.
75. Slobodna Dalmacija (May 25, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), June 11, 1992, pp. 43-4;
76. Danas (May 26, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), June 9, 1992, pp. 47-8;
77. Novi Vjesnik (June 3, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), June 19, 1992, p. 18;
78. Tanjug (June 11, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), June 15, 1992, p. 39;
79. Danas (January 7, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), January 30, 1992, pp. 52-6;
80. Patrick Moore, "Issues in Croatian Politics," RFE/RL Research Report, 1:44 (November 6, 1992), pp. 9-12;
81. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Human Rights and Democratization in Croatia (Washington, D.C.: CSCE, September 1993).
82. By 1993 Drašković returned to the nationalist card and called Sarajevo a "part of Serbia." The dramatic turnarounds in Drašković's national ideology prompted the Serbian magazine NIN to write "the road that the SPO has traveled, following its leader Vuk Drašković is so long that it already belongs in textbooks of political theory and practice." For an analysis of that "road," see Hislope, pp. 414-420, 428, 455. NIN (January 31, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), February 25, 1992, p. 52;
83. The Economist (December 25, 1993 - January 7, 1994), pp. 63-4.
84. Branka Magas, "Yugoslavia: The Specter of Balkanization," New Left Review, 172 (March/April 1989), pp. 17-20;
85. Le Monde in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), 1989;
86. Vreme (November 25, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), December 27, 1991, pp. 38-42;
87. Delo (June 15, 1989), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), June 21, 1989, pp. 67-8;
88. Ivo Banac, "Post-Communism as Post-Yugoslavism: The Yugoslav Non-Revolutions of 1989-1990," in Ivo Banac, ed., Eastern Europe in Revolution, (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 169-187;
89. Ivo Banac, The Fearful Asymmetry of War: The Causes and Consequences of Yugoslavia's Demise," Dœdalus, 121:2 (Spring 1992), pp. 141-174.
90. For an examination of Milošević's national ideology and its development, see Hislope, pp. 336-356.
91. Tanjug (March 9, 1990), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), March 14, 1990, pp. 84-5;
92. Vienna Profil (June 24, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), June 25, 1991, pp. 43-4;
93. Vienna Oesterreich Eins Radio (August 1, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), August 2, 1991, p. 54;
94. Der Spiegel (August 5, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), August 5, 1991, pp. 51-53;
95. Vienna Kurier (September 4, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), September 5, 1991), p. 38;
96. Rome La Repubblica (September 4, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), September 6, 1991, p. 37;
97. Der Standard (September 19, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), September 19, 1991, p. 41;
98. Budapest Nepszabadsag (October 12, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), October 16, 1991, pp. 42-43;
99. Politika (May 19, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), May 26, 1992, p. 51.
100. Der Spiegel (August 5, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), August 5, 1991, pp. 51-53;
101. Budapest Heti Vilaggazdasag (May 18, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), May 22, 1991, pp. 41-2.
102. Hislope, pp. 336-356.
103. In Kosovo, Šešelj has publicly threatened Albanians and Croats who live in the province with revenge if they have family members fighting for the Croatian forces. Ivan Radovanović, "Nakazna Strana Rata," Vreme (July 20, 1992), pp. 20-1;
104. Hugh Poulton, "Rising Ethnic Tension in Vojvodina," RFE/RL Research Report, 1:50 (December 18, 1992), pp. 21-27;
105. Stan Markotich, "Vojvodina: A Potential Powder Keg," RFE/RL Research Report, 2:46 (November 19, 1993), pp. 13-18;
106. Belgrade RTV Sat Television (November 18, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), November 20, 1992, p. 28;
107. Tanjug (May 8, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), May 10, 1991, pp. 26-7;
108. Milan Andrejevich, "State Presidency Agrees on Measures to Prevent Further Ethnic Violence," Report on Eastern Europe (June 7, 1991), pp. 16-20;
109. New York Times, (December 17, 1992), pp. A1, A10.
110. Borba (January 26, 1990), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), March 5, 1990, p. 69;
111. Tanjug (June 25, 1990), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), June 26, 1990, pp. 57-8;
112. Tanjug (August 9, 1990), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), August 9, 1990, p. 42;
113. Borba (September 20, 1990), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), September 26, 1990, p. 43;
114. Der Spiegel (August 5, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), August 5, 1991, pp. 51-3;
115. Vienna Oesterreich Eins Radio (August 6, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe);
116. New York Times (June 6, 1993).
117. Tanjug (March 12, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), March 13, 1991, pp. 70-1.
118. Der Spiegel (August 5, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), August 5, 1991, pp. 51-3.
119. Uros Komlenović, "Ubijanje Liberti Valanca," NIN, (May 1, 1992), pp. 28-9;
120. Politika (April 22, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), May 1, 1991, p. 48.
121. Vienna Profil (August 5, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), August 6, 1991, pp. 37-9;
122. Vecernje Novosti (December 31, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), January 30, 1992, p. 71;
123. Intervju (January 24, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), February 21, 1992, pp. 26-8;
124. "Serbia: Implosion?," Eastern Europe Newsletter (June 22, 1992), pp. 1-3.
125. Tanjug (March 22, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), March 23, 1992, pp. 40-1;
126. Borba (March 23, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), March 27, 1992, pp. 51-2.
127. Srdan Kusovac, "Zagrizi metak," Vreme (July 20, 1992), pp. 18-20.
128. Šešelj's list of traitors, foreign stooges, and fake patriots at this time included the paramilitary leader Kapetan Dragan, Milan Panic, Dobrica Ćosić, Vuk Drašković, and the Democratic Party. NIN (January 24, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), February 14, 1992, pp. 42-7;
129. Belgrade Radio Belgrade Network (June 25, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), June 26, 1992, pp. 27-8;
130. Belgrade Radio Belgrade Network (September 10, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), September 11, 1992, pp. 27-8;
131. Tanjug (December 7, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), December 8, 1992, p. 51.
132. Stan Markotich, "Serbia Prepares for Elections," RFE/RL Research Report, 2:49 (December 10, 1993), p. 16.
133. RFE/RL News Briefs, 2:3 (December 28, 1992 - January 8, 1993), p. 22;
134. RFE/RL News Briefs, 2:5 (January 18 - 22, 1993), p. 18;
135. Stan Markotich, "Serbia," RFE/RL Research Report, 3:16 (April 22, 1994), pp. 95-100;
136. RFE/RL News Briefs (November 8 - 12, 1993), p. 18;
137. New York Times (December 30, 1992; June 1, 1993);
138. Tanjug, Belgrade Radio Beograd Network (December 29, 1992), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), December 30, 1992, p. 40.
139. Milan Andrejevich, "Serbia's Bosnian Dilemma," RFE/RL Research Report, 2:23 (June 4, 1993), pp. 14, 19.
140. James Gow, "Rump Yugoslavia: Perisic Replaces Panic as Chief of Staff," RFE/RL Research Report, 2:43 (October 29, 1993), pp. 54-9;
141. Andrejevich, "Serbia's Bosnian Dilemma," p. 20.
142. The SPS claimed that Šešelj "personifies violence and primitivism," and charged that he is responsible for "war crimes." Šešelj responded that "Milošević is the head mafiosi in Serbia" and that "crime on such a high level could not have taken place without Milošević's knowledge and agreement." RFE/RL News Briefs (September 27 - October 1, 1993), p. 13, 15;
143. RFE/RL News Briefs (November 8-12, 1993), p. 18.
144. RFE/RL News Briefs (September 13-17, 1993), p. 18;
145. RFE/RL News Briefs (November 8-12, 1993), p. 18;
146. Markotich, "Serbia Prepares for Elections," pp. 15-17;
147. James Gow, "Serbia and Montenegro: Small 'FRY,' Big Trouble," RFE/RL Research Report 3:1 (January 7, 1994), pp. 127-9 .
148. Mark Thompson, "Belgrade's Hoop of Steel," New Statesman and Society (November 5, 1993), pp. 18-19.
149. The Albanian newspaper Rilindja documented the racist terminology that had become pan of the Serbian press and Skupstina's normal discourse, such as "Albanian cannibals," "ape people," and "Albanian Blackshirts." For shrill statements by Serb intellectuals and party leaders, see Stojan Cerović, "U zamci rodoljublja," Vreme (December 2, 1991), pp. 16-17;
150. Rilindja (February 26, 1990), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), March 9, 1990, p. 90;
151. Thompson, A Paper House, pp. 129-131.
152. Danas (November 12, 1991), in FBIS, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), December 17, 1991, pp. 54-6;
153. New York Times (June 6, 1993).
154. Unfortunately, recent events indicate neither Tudjman nor Milošević have developed an appreciation for tolerating intra-ethnic competition. In Zagreb, Tudjman refused to accept the opposition-controlled city council nomination for mayor. Opposition parties won control of the city council in the November 1995 election and proceeded to witness Tudjman's rejection of all four of their nominees (all of whom were from the Croatian Social Liberal Party). Tudjman declared it was the HDZ that "created Croatia" and that he would not allow "enemies of state policy" to run the capital. The political crisis was finally "solved" when Tudjman unconstitutionally dissolved the city assembly. In Belgrade, the regime initiated a criminal trial against opposition leader Zoran Djindjić (of the Democratic party) for allegedly "damaging the reputation of the Republic of Serbia." The basis of this charge is an article Djindjić wrote implicating the Serbian Prime Minister, Mirko Marjanović, in a business scandal. For the Zagreb events, see Filip Svarm, "Mate in Belgrade, Goran in Zagreb," Vreme News Digest Agency; 223 (January 15, 1996);
155. Open Media Research Institute, Daily Digest (January 11, 12, 23, 26, 1996; February 26, 1996);
156. Milos Vasic and Tatjana Tagirov, "Ping-Pong in Zagreb," Vreme News Digest Agency, 234 (April 1, 1996);
157. "Shorts," Vreme News Digest Agency, 241 (May 20, 1996).
158. For the events in Belgrade see Milan Milošević, "Together Against Marjanović," Vreme News Digest Agency, 248 (July 8, 1996);
159. Jovan Dulović, "Wheat Fever," Vreme News Digest Agency, 248 (July 8, 1996);
160. Jovan Dulović, "Trying the Judge," Vreme News Digest Agency, 249 (July 15, 1996);
161. "Shorts," Vreme News Digest Agency, 250 (July 22, 1996).