Boutilier and the U.S. Supreme Court's sexual revolution

Law and History Review

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 491-536

  Stein, Marc ^a  

^a YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 43249171018     PISSN: 07382480     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0738248000000560     Document Type: Article

References (329)

1. Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U. S. 558 (2003); 123 S. Ct. 2472. As is discussed in the conclusion, the privacy right affirmed in Lawrence was qualified and limited in various ways.
2. For a review of these and other laws as of September 1994, see Richard A. Posner and Katharine B. Silbaugh, A Guide to America's Sex Laws (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
3. On sexual citizenship, see Lauren Berlant, The Queen of America Goes to Washington City: Essays on Sex and Citizenship (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997)
4. Lauren Berlant and Michael Warner, "Sex in Public," Critical Inquiry 24, no. 2 (Winter 1998): 547-66
5. Cheshire Calhoun, Feminism, the Family, and the Politics of the Closet: Lesbian and Gay Displacement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000)
6. Margot Canaday, "'Who Is a Homosexual?': The Consolidation of Sexual Identities in Mid-Twentieth-Century American Immigration Law," Law and Social Inquiry 28, no. 2 (Spring 2003): 351-86
7. Margot Canaday, "Building a Straight State: Sexuality and Social Citizenship under the 1944 G. I. Bill," Journal of American History 90, no. 3 (Dec. 2003): 935-57
8. Citizenship Studies 5, no. 3 (Nov. 2001)
9. Lisa Duggan and Nan D. Hunter, Sex Wars: Sexual Dissent and Political Culture (New York: Routledge, 1995)
10. Eithne Luibhéid, Entry Denied: Controlling Sexuality at the Border (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002)
11. Michael Warner, ed. , Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993).
12. New York Times (NYT), 25 Mar. 2000, A7
13. Albuquerque Journal, 11 Mar. 2000
14. Charlotte Observer, 4 Apr. 2001
15. NYT, 4 Apr. 2003, A12
16. NYT, 20 Jan. 2004, A12.
17. See also Jewish World Review, 25 Oct. 2000.
18. In fact, these responses preceded and anticipated the announcement of the decision. See, for example, the April 2003 comments of U. S. Senator Rick Santorum, widely reported in the press. For an early critical response from the left, see "Did Gays Get All They Want from the Supreme Court? (Really?)," History News Network, 7 July 2003, http://hnn. us/ articles/1542. html.
19. See Sara Diamond, Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movements and Political Power in the United States (New York: Guilford, 1995).
20. Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U. S. 479 (1965).
21. See also William N. Eskridge, Jr. , and Nan D. Hunter, Sexuality, Gender, and the Law (Westbury, N. Y. : Foundation Press, 1997), 3-24
22. David J. Garrow, Liberty and Sexuality: The Right to Privacy and the Making of Roe v. Wade (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 196-269
23. Leslie Friedman Goldstein, The Constitutional Rights of Women: Cases in Law and Social Change, 2d ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 298-324
24. N. E. H. Hull and Peter Charles Hoffer, Roe v. Wade: The Abortion Rights Controversy in American History (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001), 76-88.
25. A Book Named "John Cleland's Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure" v. Attorney General of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts (commonly referred to as Fanny Hill), 383 U. S. 413 (1966).
26. See also Edward de Grazia, Girls Lean Back Everywhere: The Law of Obscenity and the Assault on Genius (New York: Random House, 1992), 436-43
27. Bob Woodward and Scott Armstrong, The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), 15-16, 169-77, 192-204, 244-53, 279-82, 364-65, 403.
28. Other obscenity rulings in this period include Ginzburg v. U. S. , 383 U. S. 463 (1966)
29. Mishkin v. New York, 383 U. S. 502 (1966)
30. Redmond v. United States, 384 U. S. 264 (1966)
31. Redrup v. New York, 386 U. S. 767 (1967)
32. Landau v. Fording, 388 U. S. 456 (1967)
33. Teitel Film Corp. v. Cusack, 390 U. S. 139 (1968)
34. Ginsberg v. New York, 390 U. S. 629 (1968)
35. Interstate Circuit v. Dallas, 390 U. S. 676 (1968)
36. Lee Art Theatre v. Virginia, 392 U. S. 636 (1968)
37. Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U. S. 557 (1969)
38. Walker v. Ohio, 398 U. S. 434 (1970)
39. Blount v. Rizzi, 400 U. S. 410 (1971)
40. Byrne v. Karalexis, 401 U. S. 216 (1971)
41. United States v. Reidel, 402 U. S. 351 (1971)
42. United States v. Thirty-Seven Photographs, 402 U. S. 363 (1971)
43. Kois v. Wisconsin, 408 U. S. 229 (1972)
44. Rabe v. Washington, 405 U. S. 313 (1972)
45. Papish v. Board of Curators, 410 U. S. 667 (1973)
46. Miller v. California, 413 U. S. 15 (1973)
47. Paris Adult Theatre I v. Slaton, 413 U. S. 49 (1973)
48. Kaplan v. California, 413 U. S. 115 (1973)
49. United States v. Onto, 413 U. S. 139 (1973).
50. Loving v. Virginia, 388 U. S. 1 (1967).
51. See also Rachel F. Moran, Interracial Intimacy: The Regulation of Race and Romance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001)
52. Renee C. Romano, Race Mixing: Black-White Marriage in Postwar America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003)
53. Peggy Pascoe, "Miscegenation Law, Court Cases, and Ideologies of 'Race' in Twentieth-Century America," in Sex, Love, Race: Crossing Boundaries in North American History, ed. Martha Hodes (New York: New York University Press, 1999), 464-90
54. Robert J. Sickels, Race, Marriage, and the Law (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972)
55. Walter Wadlington, "The Loving Case: Virginia's Antimiscegenation Statute in Historical Perspective," Virginia Law Review 52 (Oct. 1966): 1189-1223
56. Peter Wallenstein, "Race, Marriage, and the Law of Freedom: Alabama and Virginia, 1860s-1960s," Chicago-Kent Law Review 70, no. 2 (1994): 371-437
57. Peter Wallenstein, Tell the Court I Love My Wife: Race, Marriage, and Law - An American History (New York: Palgrave, 2002).
58. For a related case, see McGlaughlin v. Florida, 379 U. S. 184 (1964).
59. Eisenstadt v. Baird, 405 U. S. 438 (1972).
60. See also Eskridge and Hunter, Sexuality, Gender, and the Law, 24-30
61. Garrow, Liberty and Sexuality, 457, 473-599
62. Goldstein, The Constitutional Rights of Women, 322-33.
63. Roe v. Wade, 410 U. S. 113 (1973).
64. See also Eskridge and Hunter, Sexuality, Gender, and the Law, 30-36
65. Marian Faux, Roe v. Wade: The Untold Story of the Landmark Supreme Court Decision That Made Abortion Legal (New York: New American Library, 1988)
66. Garrow, Liberty and Sexuality, 473-599
67. Norma McCorvey, with Andy Meisler, I Am Roe: My Life, Roe v. Wade,and Freedom of Choice (New York: HarperCollins, 1994)
68. Leslie J. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867-1973 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 216-45
69. Eva R. Rubin, The Abortion Controversy: A Documentary History (Westport, Conn. : Greenwood, 1994), 117-69
70. Sarah Weddington, A Question of Choice (New York: Putnam's, 1992)
71. Woodward and Armstrong, The Brethren, 165-89, 229-40.
72. For other abortion rulings in this period, see U. S. v. Vuitch, 402 U. S. 62 (1971)
73. Doe v. Bolton, 410 U. S. 179 (1973).
74. See Maurice A. Roberts, "Sex and the Immigration Laws," San Diego Law Review 14 (1976): 9-41
75. William T. Reynolds, "The Immigration and Nationality Act and the Rights of Homosexual Aliens," Journal of Homosexuality 5, nos. 1-2 (Fall 1979-Winter 1980): 79-87
76. Marc Bogatin, "The Immigration and Nationality Act and the Exclusion of Homosexual Aliens: Boutilier v. INS Revisited," Cardozo Law Review 2, no. 2 (Winter 1981): 359-96
77. Rachel A. Hexter, "Immigration - Naturalization," Suffolk Transnational Law Journal 6, no. 2 (Spring 1982): 383-94
78. Robert Poznanski, "The Propriety of Denying Entry to Homosexual Aliens: Examining the Public Health Service's Authority over Medical Exclusions," University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform 17 (Winter 1984): 331-59
79. Samuel M. Silvers, "The Exclusion and Expulsion of Homosexual Aliens," Columbia Human Rights Law Review 15, no. 2 (Spring 1984): 295-332
80. Peter N. Fowler and Leonard Graff, "Gay Aliens and Immigration: Resolving the Conflict Between Hill and Longstaff," University of Dayton Law Review (1985): 621-44
81. Philip Girard, "From Subversion to Liberation: Homosexuals and the Immigration Act, 1952-1977," Canadian Journal of Law and Society 2 (1987): 1-27
82. Richard Green, "'Give Me Your Tired, Your Poor, Your Huddled Masses' (of Heterosexuals): An Analysis of American and Canadian Immigration Policy," Anglo-American Law Review 16 (1987): 139-59
83. William N. Eskridge, Jr. , "Gadamer/Statutory Interpretation," Columbia Law Review 90 (Apr. 1990): 609-81
84. Shannon Minter, "Sodomy and Public Morality Offenses under U. S. Immigration Law: Penalizing Lesbian and Gay Identity," Cornell International Law Journal 26 (1993): 771-817
85. William N. Eskridge, Jr. , Dynamic Statutory Interpretation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), 48-80
86. Robert J. Foss, "The Demise of the Homosexual Exclusion: New Possibilities for Gay and Lesbian Immigration," Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 29, no. 2 (Spring 1994; dated Spring 1993 on the internet): 439-75
87. William N. Eskridge, "Challenging the Apartheid of the Closet: Establishing Conditions for Lesbian and Gay Intimacy, Nomos, and Citizenship, 1961-1981," Hofstra Law Review 25 (Spring 1997): 817-960
88. William N. Eskridge, Jr. , Gaylaw: Challenging the Apartheid of the Closet (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), 35-36, 69-70, 132-34, 383-84
89. Barney Frank, "American Immigration Law: A Case Study in the Effective Use of the Political Process," in Creating Change: Sexuality, Public Policy, and Civil Rights, ed. John D'Emilio, William B. Turner, Urvashi Vaid (New York: St. Martin's, 2000), 208-35
90. Joyce Murdoch and Deb Price, Courting Justice: Gay Men and Lesbians v. the Supreme Court (New York: Basic, 2001), 103-34. Helpful works by historians and ethnic studies scholars include William B. Turner, "Lesbian/Gay Rights and Immigration Policy: Lobbying to End the Medical Model," Journal of Policy History 7, no. 2 (1995): 208-25
91. Luibhéid, Entry Denied, 77-101
92. Canaday, "'Who Is A Homosexual?'" For related cases in this period, see Rosenberg v. Fleuti, 374 U. S. 449 (1963)
93. INS v. Lavoie, 387 U. S. 572 (1967)
94. Tovar v. INS, 388 U. S. 915 (1967).
95. See David Allyn, Make Love, Not War: The Sexual Revolution, An Unfettered History (Boston: Little, Brown, 2000), 38, 55-70, 263-66
96. Beth Bailey, Sex in the Heartland (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), 7, 15, 129-30, 182
97. Nancy F. Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 199-201, 210-16
98. John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 250, 277, 287-88, 315, 327, 350
99. Kevin White, Sexual Liberation or Sexual Licence ?: The American Revolt against Victorianism (Chicago: Ivan Dee, 2000), 137-41, 161, 176.
100. For an influential early contribution, see Thomas C. Grey, "Eros, Civilization and the Burger Court," Law and Contemporary Problems 43, no. 3 (Summer 1980): 83-100.
101. For an insightful review of the literature, see David B. Cruz, "'The Sexual Freedom Cases'? Contraception, Abortion, Abstinence, and the Constitution," University of Southern California Law School Olin Working Paper No. 99-20, Feb. 2000.
102. For a helpful recent work by a literary critic, see Deborah Nelson, Pursuing Privacy in Cold War America (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002).
103. When discussing gay, lesbian, and bisexual movements before the Stonewall riots of 1969, legal scholars generally rely on and cite John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Com munities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983).
104. Sexual Politics is a groundbreaking work that remains the standard treatment of the homophile movement, but it is now more than two decades old and its conclusions have been supplemented and revised by a number of works, including Nan Alamilla Boyd, Wide Open Town: A History of Queer San Francisco to 1965 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003)
105. Gay and Lesbian Historical Society of Northern California, "MTF Transgender Activism in the Tenderloin and Beyond, 1966-1975," GLQ 4:2 (1998): 349-72
106. David K. Johnson, The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004)
107. Martin Meeker, "Behind the Mask of Respectability: Reconsidering the Mattachine Society and Male Homophile Practice, 1950s and 1960s," Journal of the History of Sexuality 10, no. 1 (Jan. 2001): 78-116
108. Joanne Meyerowitz, How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002)
109. Marc Stein, City of Sisterly and Brotherly Loves: Lesbian and Gay Philadelphia, 1945-1972 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
110. For exceptional works by legal scholars that address pre-1970s social movements and reception, see Patricia A. Cain, Rainbow Rights: The Role of Lawyers and Courts in the Lesbian and Gay Civil Rights Movement (Boulder, Colo. : Westview, 2000)
111. de Grazia, Girls Lean Back Everywhere
112. Murdoch and Price, Courting Justice
113. Sickels, Race, Marriage, and the Law
114. Wallenstein, "Race, Marriage, and the Law of Freedom. " Grey also discusses reception. Note, however, that of these legal works only Courting Justice addresses Boutilier in any depth, and none explores Boutilier's social movement advocates.
115. Bowers was widely criticized along these lines, as was Doe v. Commonwealth, 425 U. S. 901 (1976).
116. Griswold, 485-86.
117. D'Emilio and Freedman, Intimate Matters
118. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic, 1985)
119. Christopher Lasch, Haven in a Heartless World: The Family Besieged (New York: Basic, 1977)
120. Eva R. Rubin, The Supreme Court and the American Family: Ideology and Issues (New York: Greenwood, 1986).
121. Griswold, 495-99. Goldberg also cited a dissent by Louis Brandeis that had defended "'the right to be let alone - the most comprehensive of rights and the right most valued by civilized men. '" Griswold, 494. Along similar lines, Brennan wrote privately to Douglas as Douglas worked on his opinion: "It is plain that, in our civilization, the marital relationship above all else is endowed with privacy. " Brennan to Douglas, 24 Apr. 1965, Box 1347, William O. Douglas Papers, Library of Congress. The justices in Griswold repeatedly referred to the principles, traditions, and values of "our" civilization, "our" society, "our" people, and "our" institutions, implicitly invoking traditionally classed, gendered, and racialized beliefs about other civilizations, societies, peoples, and institutions.
122. See also Poe v. Ullman, 367 U. S. 497 (1961)
123. Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
124. See also Daniel Patrick Moynihan, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action, in The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy, ed. Lee Rainwater and William L. Yancey (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967).
125. Moynihan, an assistant secretary of labor in the Johnson administration, argued that the most fundamental problem facing the Black community in the United States was the "tangle of pathology" produced by the community's low rates of long-term marriages and high rates of promiscuity, illegitimacy, and matriarchal, female-headed households. The literature on the Moynihan report is extensive. For a helpful recent contribution, see Ruth Feldstein, Motherhood in Black and White: Race and Sex in American Liberalism, 1930-1965 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000), 139-64. Moynihan submitted his report to Johnson in March 1965
126. oral arguments in Griswold were heard on 29 March 1965
127. the Court's decision was announced on 7 June. On class, gender, race, and reproductive rights decisions, see Angela Y. Davis, Women, Race, and Class (New York: Random House, 1981), 202-21
128. Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right: Birth Control in America, rev. ed. (1974
129. New York: Penguin, 1990), 116-58; 249-401
130. Kathryn Kolbert and Andrea Miller, "Legal Strategies for Abortion Rights in the Twenty-First Century," in Abortion Wars: A Half Century of Struggle, 1950-2000, ed. Rickie Solinger (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998)
131. Dorothy E. Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Random House, 1997), 56-103
132. Loretta J. Ross, "African-American Women and Abortion," in Abortion Wars, 161-207.
133. Eisenstadt, 453.
134. Oral arguments of Joseph D. Tydings in Eisenstadt, 17 Nov. 1971
135. Eisenstadt, 464-65.
136. Roe, 152-53, 116, 154.
137. See Rhonda Copelon, "From Privacy to Autonomy: The Conditions for Sexual and Reproductive Freedom," in From Abortion to Reproductive Freedom: Transforming a Movement, ed. Marlene Gerber Fried (Boston: South End, 1990), 27-43
138. Gordon, Woman's Body, 410-12
139. Kolbert and Miller, "Legal Strategies," 95-99
140. Carole R. McCann, Birth Control Politics in the United States, 1916-1945 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), 99-173.
141. One, Incorporated v. Oleson, 355 U. S. 371 (1958)
142. Manual Enterprise v. Day, 370 U. S. 478 (1962)
143. Fanny Hill, 383 U. S. 413 (1966), 418
144. Mishkin, 383 U. S. 502 (1966), 505, 508
145. Miller v. California, 413 U. S. 15 (1973), 24.
146. See also Landau, 388 U. S. 456 (1967).
147. On respectability, see George L. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality: Respectability and Abnormal Sexuality in Modern Europe (New York: Howard Fertig, 1985)
148. Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 185-229.
149. For especially helpful contributions, see Canaday, "'Who Is a Homosexual?"; Luibhéid, Entry Denied.
150. See Act of 3 Mar. 1891, §1, 26 Stat. 1084
151. Immigration Act of 1917, §3, 39 Stat. 874
152. Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, Public Law 82-414, §212(a)(4), 66 Stat. 163, 182, 8 U. S. C. 1182(a)
153. Eskridge, Gaylaw, 383-84
154. Canaday, "'Who Is a Homosexual?"; Luibhéid, Entry Denied; Fleuti v. Rosenberg, 302 F. 2d 652 (9th Cir. 1962)
155. Act of Oct. 3, 1965, Public Law No. 89-236, §15(b), 79 Stat. 911, 919, 8 U. S. C. Section 1182(a)(4).
156. Nationality," Harvard Law Review 66, no. 4 (Feb. 1953): 643-745
157. "Limitations on Congressional Power to Deport Resident Aliens Excludable as Psychopaths at Time of Entry," Yale Law Journal 68, no. 5 (Apr. 1959): 931-48
158. Irving Appleman, "That New Immigration Act," American Bar Association Journal 52 (Aug. 1966): 717-20
159. Thomas J. Scully, "Is the Door Open Again? - A Survey of Our New Immigration Law," UCLA Law Review 13 (1966): 227-49
160. Estelle Freedman, "'Uncontrolled Desires': The Response to the Sexual Psychopath, 1920-1960," Journal of American History 74 (Jun. 1987): 83-106
161. Jennifer Terry, An American Obsession: Science, Medicine, and Homosexuality in Modern Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999).
162. Milton, Kaufman "participated in highly improper ex parte communications with various individuals connected with the prosecution" of the Rosenbergs. They also note that the judge's involvement in the Rosenberg case may have frustrated his ambition to be appointed to the Supreme Court (and delayed his appointment to the Court of Appeals until 1961). Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, The Rosenberg File: A Search for the Truth (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1983), 277, 287-89.
163. See also 276-90, 411-12, 428-31, 533, 571-72
164. D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, 40-53
165. Johnson, The Lavender Scare
166. Robert Meeropol and Michael Meeropol, We Are Your Sons: The Legacy of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, 2d ed. (1975; Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986), 370-83
167. Bruce Allen Murphy, The Brandeis/Frankfurter Connection: The Secret Political Activities of Two Supreme Court Justices (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 330-38. I thank Henry Abelove for first calling my attention to Kaufman's connection to the Rosenberg case.
168. On Agrin, see Radosh and Milton, The Rosenberg File, 191, 319, 343, 385, 402, 414-15, 422, 535-36
169. Meeropol and Meeropol, We Are Your Sons, 265, 270, 286. Members of Freedman's family (including Allen Young, Michael Freedman, Paul Laven, and Anne Laven) and Michael Meeropol supplied some of the biographical information in correspondence, 22 Mar. -18 Apr. 2001.
170. See also "Administration, Legal Counsel: Freedman, Blanch, 1955" File, ACPFB Papers; Civil Liberties Docket, Oct. 1955 to Jul. 1957
171. NYT, 27 Jan. 1938, 23
172. Feb. 1941, D4
173. Oct. 1943, 16
174. Apr. 1945, 20
175. May 1945, 33
176. Jun. 1945, 39
177. Oct. 1947, 2
178. Jun. 1949, 3
179. Aug. 1949, 15
180. Jan. 1952, 27
181. Aug. 1954, 16
182. Feb. 1955, 12
183. Oct. 1955, 14
184. Oct. 1955, 19
185. Mar. 1957, 22
186. Oct. 1957, 8
187. Apr. 1967, 37. According to family members, Freedman was born in 1908 and was the only woman in her class at Saint John's University Law School. The ACPFB, founded in 1933 and dissolved in 1982, assisted a variety of leftist unions, organizations, and individuals. The Subversive Activities Control Board listed the ACPFB as a subversive organization in the 1950s.
188. S. 3455, 81st Cong. , 2d Sess. , §212(a) (1950)
189. S. 716, 82d Cong. , 1st Sess. , §212(a) (1951)
190. H. R. 2379, 82d Cong. , 1st Sess. §212(a) (1951). In 1952, on the advice of the PHS, the Senate Judiciary Committee concluded that the term "psychopathic personality" was "sufficiently broad to provide for the exclusion of homosexuals and sex perverts. " The Senate report made clear that this "is not to be construed in any way as modifying the intent to exclude all aliens who are sexual deviates. " See S. Rep. No. 1137, 82d Cong. , 2d Sess. , 9 (1952). House reports contained similar references.
191. See H. R. 2379, 82d Cong. , 1st Sess. , §212(a) (1951)
192. H. R. Rep. No. 1365, 82d Cong. , 2d Sess. , 45-56 (1952). The latter, for example, accepted the PHS's recommendation that the term "psychopathic personality" be used to "specify such types of pathologic behavior as homosexuality or sexual perversion. " Legislative reports from 1965, when Congress excluded "sexual deviates," were also cited in this debate. See S. Rep. No. 748, 89/90th Cong. , 1st Sess. 18-19 (1965)
193. H. R. Rep. No. 745, 89/90th Cong. , 1st Sess. , 16 (1965).
194. This question was part of a larger debate about the scope and limits of scientific and medical authority in twentieth-century politics and law. See Ronald Bayer, Homosexuality and American Psychiatry: The Politics of Diagnosis (New York: Basic, 1981)
195. Elizabeth Lunbeck, The Psychiatric Persuasion: Knowledge, Gender, and Power in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994)
196. David J. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making (New York: Basic, 1991).
197. Boutilier, 363 F. 2d 488, 489-90, 495.
198. While Marshall's signature does not prove that he wrote the briefs, it justifies attributing the brief to him.
199. In addition to the HLRS brief, see HLRS press release, 12 Jan. 1967
200. correspondence, 17-18 Nov. 1966, Boutilier file, ACPFB Papers.
201. Murdoch and Price, Courting Justice, 117
202. Cathy Douglas Stone, cited in Murdoch and Price, Courting Justice, 128
203. William O. Douglas, Go East Young Man: The Early Years (New York: Random House, 1974), 104-5
204. Hugo Black, Jr. , My Father: A Remembrance (New York: Random House, 1975), 128.
205. See also Murdoch and Price, 18-21, 23, 78-79, 85, 99-101, 108, 117-21, 128-31, 142, 147-48, 244-51, 531-32.
206. One v. Oleson, 355 U. S. 371 (1958)
207. Rosenberg v. Fleuti, 374 U. S. 449 (1963)
208. Babouris v. Esperdy, 362 U. S. 913 (1960)
209. Ganduxe y Marino v. Esperdy, 364 U. S. 824 (1960)
210. Kameny v. Brucker, 365 U. S. 843 (1961)
211. Womack v. United States, 365 U. S. 859 (1961)
212. Shields v. Sharp, 366 U. S. 917 (1961)
213. Hudson et al. v. Esperdy, 368 U. S. 918 (1961)
214. Wyngaard v. Kennedy, 368 U. S. 926 (1961)
215. Williams v. Zuckert, 371 U. S. 531 (1963)
216. Caplan v. Korth, 373 U. S. 915 (1963)
217. Darnell v. United States, 375 U. S. 916 (1963)
218. Poore v. Mayer, 379 U. S. 928 (1964)
219. Dew v. Halaby, 379 U. S. 951 (1964)
220. Chamberlain v. Ohio, 385 U. S. 844 (1966)
221. Robillard v. New York, 385 U. S. 928 (1966)
222. Lavoie v. INS, 387 U. S. 572 (1967), 400 U. S. 854 (1970).
223. Harry Datcher, cited in Bruce Allen Murphy, Wild Bill: The Legend and Life of William O. Douglas (New York: Random House, 2003), 368
224. Michael D. Davis and Hunter R. Clark, Thurgood Marshall: Warrior at the Bar, Rebel on the Bench (New York: Birch Lane, 1992), 281
225. Hugh Heffner to William Brennan, c. 1966, Box 135, William Brennan Papers, Library of Congress
226. Fortas to Brennan, 10 Feb. 1966, Box 139, Brennan Papers
227. Fortas to Douglas, 10 Apr. 1967, Box 1379, Douglas Papers; Douglas, cited in Harry S. Ashmore, "Doubling the Standard," Virginia Quarterly Review 62 (Winter 1986), 71
228. W. V. Gullickson to the Law Clerks, 9 Feb. 1972, and to Warren Burger, 14 Feb. 1972, Box 78, Thurgood Marshall Papers, Library of Congress.
229. See also, New Haven: Yale University Press
230. See also Laura Kalman, Abe Fortas: A Biography (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 320
231. Woodward and Armstrong, The Brethren, 76, 129, 193, 244, 279.
232. Douglas married four times; Black, Brennan, and Marshall each married twice; the other seven justices each married once. Warren had five biological children and a stepchild; Black had four biological children and a stepchild; Fortas had no children; the other justices each had one, two, or three biological children. See Howard Ball, A Defiant Life: Thurgood Marshall and the Persistence of Racism in America (New York: Crown, 1998)
233. Howard Ball, Hugo L Black: Cold Steel Warrior (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996)
234. Howard Ball, The Vision and the Dream of Justice Hugo L Black: An Examination of a Judicial Philosophy (University: University of Alabama Press, 1975)
235. Howard Ball and Phillip J. Cooper, Of Power and Right: Hugo Black, William O. Douglas, and American's Constitutional Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992)
236. Hugo L. Black and Elizabeth Black, Mr. Justice and Mrs. Black: The Memoirs of Hugo L. Black and Elizabeth Black (New York: Random House, 1986)
237. Hunter R. Clark, Justice Brennan: The Great Conciliator (New York: Birth Lane, 1995)
238. Vern Countryman, The Judicial Record of Justice William O. Douglas (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974)
239. Ed Cray, Chief Justice: A Biography of Earl Warren (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997)
240. Davis and Clark, Thurgood Marshall
241. William O. Douglas, The Court Years, 1939-1975: The Autobiography of William O. Douglas (New York: Random House, 1980)
242. William O. Douglas, The Douglas Letters: Selections from the Private Papers of Justice William O. Douglas, ed. and intro. by Melvin I. Urofsky, with Philip E. Urofsky (Bethesda, Md. : Adler and Adler, 1987)
243. Douglas, Go East
244. Gerald T. Dunne, Hugo Black and the Judicial Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977)
245. James C. Duram, Justice William O. Douglas (Boston: Twayne, 1981)
246. Kim Isaac Eisler, A Justice for All: William J. Brennan, Jr. , and the Decisions That Transformed America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993)
247. Tony Freyer, Hugo L. Black and the Dilemma of American Liberalism (Glenview, Ill. : Scott, Foresman: 1990)
248. Dorothy Goldberg, A Private View of a Public Life (New York: Charterhouse, 1975)
249. Roger Goldman with David Gallen, Justice William J. Brennan, Jr. : Freedom First (New York: Carroll and Graf, 1994)
250. Jeffrey D. Hockett, New Deal Justice: The Constitutional Jurisprudence of Hugo L. Black, Felix Frankfurther, and Robert H. Jackson (Lanham, Md. : Rowman and Littlefield, 1996)
251. Dennis J. Hutchinson, The Man Who Once Was Whizzer White: A Portrait of Justice Byron R. White (New York: Free Press, 1998)
252. Kalman, Abe Fortas
253. James E. Leahy, Freedom Fighters of the United States Supreme Court: Nine Who Championed Individual Liberty (Jefferson, N. C. : McFarland, 1996)
254. James J. Magee, Mr. Justice Black: Absolutist on the Court (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1980)
255. David E. Marion, The Jurisprudence of Justice William J. Brennan, Jr. : The Law and Politics of "Libertarian Dignity" (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 1997)
256. Bruce Allen Murphy, Fortas: The Rise and Ruin of a Supreme Court Justice (New York: Morrow, 1988)
257. Murphy, Wild Bill
258. Roger K. Newman, Hugo Black: A Biography (New York: Pantheon, 1994)
259. Robert D. Richards, Uninhibited, Robust, and Wide Open: Mr. Justice Brennan's Legacy to the First Amendment (Boone: Parkway, 1994)
260. E. Joshua Rosenkranz and Bernard Schwartz, Reason and Passion: Justice Brennan's Enduring Influence (New York: Norton, 1997)
261. Carl Thomas Rowan, Dream Makers, Dream Breakers: The World of Justice Thurgood Marshall (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993)
262. Robert Shogan, A Question of Judgement: The Fortas Case and the Struggle for the Supreme Court (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1972)
263. David Stebenne, Arthur J. Goldberg: New Deal Liberal (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996)
264. Stephen Parks Strickland, ed. , Hugo Black and the Supreme Court: A Symposium (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1967)
265. Melvin Urofsky, Supreme Court Justices: A Biography (New York: Garland, 1994)
266. Virginia van der Veer Hamilton, Hugo Black: The Alabama Years (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972)
267. Stephan L. Wasby, ed. , "He Shall Not Pass This Way Again": The Legacy of Justice William O. Douglas (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990)
268. Weddington, A Question of Choice
269. Juan Williams, Thurgood Marshall: American Revolutionary (New York: Times, 1998)
270. Woodward and Armstrong, The Brethren
271. Tinsley E. Yarbrough, John Marshall Harlan: Great Dissenter of the Warren Court (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
272. Rubin, The Supreme Court, 190
273. See also Murdoch and Price, Courting Justice, 112-17.
274. Boutilier, 120-24.
275. See Chae Chan Ping. v. United States, 130 U. S. 581 (1889).
276. On race as a metalanguage, see Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African-American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17 (Winter 1992): 251-74
277. Siobhan B. Somerville, Queering the Color Line: Race and the Invention of Homosexuality in American Culture (Durham: Duke University Press, 2000).
278. Boutilier, 125, 129, 135
279. This point was raised in Drum, no. 25 (Aug. 1967), 25. Drum is discussed below.
280. Kalman, Abe Fortas, 196.
281. See also 42-45, 194-96, 261-66, 320, 342-44
282. Murphy, Fortas, 195-200, 478-89, 507-9
283. Shogan, A Question of Judgement, 3-10, 40, 101-2, 170-78.
284. Two FBI documents, dated 20 and 24 Jul. 1967, are included in J. J. Maloney, "Was Abe Fortas Gay?" Crime Magazine: An Encylopedia of Crime, available at http://www. crimemagazine. com/Corruption/abe. htm.
285. Susan Braudy, in Family Circle: The Boudins and the Aristocracy of the Left (New York: Knopf, 2003), 331, writes (citing the FBI file on Fortas), "In fact, Fortas resigned because of J. Edgar Hoover's threat of blackmail: an FBI agent had visited Fortas in 1968 to inform him of Hoover's 'concern' that Fortas had been seen at a homosexual bar. " Laura Kalman, in Abe Fortas, 375, writes (citing the papers of journalist Fred Graham), "Graham and [William] Lambert were told, presumably by sources within the government who offered to 'bootleg' the information 'out of the FBI,' that the FBI had a morals file on Fortas that included allegations he had once been involved in a sexual relationship with a teenage boy. " I thank Kalman for first calling my attention to these sources.
286. See the works cited in note 15. The absence of research in this area has led at least one scholar to speculate (incorrectly) that the HLRS "may have been formed primarily to file a brief in this case. " See Arthur Leonard, Sexuality and the Law: An Encyclopedia of Major Legal Cases (New York: Garland, 1993), 644.
287. Vern Bullough, "Lesbianism, Homosexuality, and the American Civil Liberties Union," Journal of Homosexuality 13 (Fall 1986): 23-33
288. Stein, City of Sisterly and Brotherly Loves, 100-101, 160, 183-84, 197, 209-10, 251, 276-82, 384
289. Cain, Rainbow Rights, 56-57, 67-69
290. Boyd, Wide-Open Town, 141, 217-18, 225
291. Janus Society Newsletter (JSN), Oct. 1963, 1-2
292. Wall Street Journal, 17 Jul. 1968, 1, 22
293. See, for example, Eastern Mattachine Magazine, Nov. -Dec. 1965, 19-20
294. Joan Frazer [Joan Fleischmann] (for ECHO) to Clark Polak, c. Feb. 1965, ECHOP.
295. Clark Polak, "The Homophile Puzzle, Part One," Drum, Dec. 1965, 14-15
296. JSN, Sep. 1966, 1-2
297. JSN, Jan. 1965, 2
298. ECHO Minutes, 5 Dec. 1964, ECHOP
299. Polak to Dick Leitsch, 29 Nov. 1965, Box 5, Folder 2, Mattachine Society Records (MSR), International Gay Information Center Archives, Rare Books and Manuscripts Division, New York Public Library, New York, NY
300. Drum, nos. 18-19, 1966, 52
301. Drum, no. 24 (Mar. 1967), 6
302. Correspondence, 17-18 Nov. 1966, Boutilier file, ACPFB Papers.
303. Author correspondence with Paul and Anne Laven; Freedman to Polak, 10 Jan. 1967, Boutilier file, ACPFB Papers.
304. See also correspondence, 22 Jul. -18 Nov. 1966, Boutilier file, ACPFB Papers
305. correspondence, 1966-67, Box 1, Folders 1, 12, 14, and 15, MSR
306. Boutilier file, ACPFB Papers. See also Wall Street Journal, 17 Jul. 1968, 1, 23
307. Mattachine Society of New York Newsletter, Dec. 1966, 2
308. See Ladder, Jun. 1967, 25-26
309. Ladder, Jan. 1968, 21-27
310. NLDF file, NACHO file, ONE Institute and Archives, Los Angeles, Calif.
311. NLDF proposal, brochure, and articles of incorporation, c. 1966-67, Lyon/Martin Papers, Box 18, Folder 17
312. Box 20, Folder 7
313. correspondence, 2-27 Mar. 1967, Boutilier file, ACPFB Papers.
314. Kameny to Freedman, 9 Feb. 1967, Boutilier file, ACPFB Papers.
315. Freedman to Polak, 18 Jan. 1967, Boutilier file, ACPFB Papers
316. Drum, no. 24 (1967), 3, 10
317. JSN, no. 24 (1967), 2
318. Drum, no. 25 (Aug. 1967), 25
319. NYT, 24 May 1967
320. HLRS press release, 23 May 1967, Boutilier file, ACPFB Papers
321. See also Polak to David Freedman, 9 Jun. 1967, Boutilier file, ACPFB Papers
322. Sexology, Jan. 1968, 387-88
323. Murdoch and Price, Courting Justice, 134. The answer to Stewart's question can be found in a memorandum by INS General Counsel Charles Gordon to Marshall, 15 Mar. 1967, Boutilier file, ACPFB Papers. While this letter references examples of the phrase "psychopathic personality" being used in non-sexual deviation cases, they all appear to be from the period after the 1965 immigration law was passed.
324. Polak to Freedman, 22 May 1967, Boutilier file, ACPFB Papers. Freedman was sent a telegram announcing the Court's decision on 22 May 1967. See Boutilier file, ACPFB Papers .
325. U. S. Citizenship and Immigration Services records for Clive Michael Boutilier; author correspondence with Boutilier's niece, 14 Mar. 2001
326. Marc Stein, "Forgetting and Remembering a Deported Alien," History News Network, 3 November 2003, http://hnn. us/articles/1769. html. I thank Marian L. Smith of U. S. Citizenship and Immigration Services for supplying me with the date of Boutilier's deportation.
327. before the Sixth International Conference on AIDS in San Francisco. Later that year, after nearly one hundred AIDS service and research organizations boycotted the conference in response, the Immigration Act of 1990 removed the references to "sexual deviation" and "psychopathic personality" but added provisions that allowed the exclusion of people with HIV and/or AIDS. See note 15; Immigration Act of 1990, PL 101-649, 104 Stat. 4978.
328. Miller v. California, 413 U. S. 15, 33 (1973).
329. Lawrence.