A provincial imperialist and a curious account of Wallachia: Ignaz von Born

European History Quarterly

Volumn 36, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 61-89

  Drace Francis, Alex ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Habsburg Empire; Ignaz von Born; Imperialism; Romanians; Travel writing

Indexed keywords

EID: 43249166740     PISSN: 02656914     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0265691406059612     Document Type: Article

References (180)

1. Talal Asad, ed., Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter (London 1973);
2. Edward Said, Orientalism (London 1978);
3. Roy Porter and G.S. Rousseau, eds, Exoticism and the Enlightenment (Manchester 1990);
4. Urs Bitterli, Cultures in Conflict: Encounters between European and Non-European Cultures, 1492-1800, trans. R. Robertson (Cambridge 1993);
5. Stuart Schwartz, ed., Implicit Understandings: Observing, Reporting, and Reflecting on the Encounters Between Europeans and Other Peoples in the Early Modern Era (Cambridge 1994);
6. Anthony Pagden, ed., Facing Each Other: The World's Perception of Europe and Europe's Perception of the World, 2 Vols (Aldershot 2000);
7. Jürgen Osterhammel, Geschichtswissenschaft jenseits des Nationalstaats: Studien zu Beziehungsgeschichte und Zivilisationsvergleich (Göttingen 2001), 179-239.
8. Larry Wolff Inventing Eastern Europe (Stanford, CA 1994).
9. Recent work pursuing this 'West invents East' paradigm includes Wolff, 'Inventing Galicia: Messianic Josephinism and the Recasting of Partitioned Poland', Slavic Review, Vol. 63 (2004), 818-40;
10. Božidar Jezernik, Wild Europe. The Balkans in the Gaze of Western Travellers (London 2004);
11. Nancy Bisaha, Creating East and West: Renaissance Humanists and the Ottoman Turks (Philadelphia, PA 2004).
12. Nancy Wingfield, ed., Creating the Other (West Lafayette, IN 2003) takes up the theme of alterity within the confines of the Habsburg Empire.
13. Michael Confino, 'Reinventing the Enlightenment: Western Images of Eastern Realities', Canadian Slavonic Papers, Vol. 26 (1994), 505-22;
14. Csaba Dupcsik, 'Postcolonial Studies and the Inventing of Eastern Europe', East Central Europe, Vol. 26 (1999), 1-14;
15. Stefano Petrungaro, 'L'est europeo, o a l'est dell'Europa', Novecento, nr. 10 (2004), 77-86.
16. Ezequiel Adamovsky, 'Euro-Orientalism and the Making of the Concept of Eastern Europe in France, 1810-1880', Journal of Modern History, Vol. 77 (2005), 591-628.
17. Patrick Jager, 'Les limites orientales de l'espace européen', Dix-huitiéme siècle, Vol. 25 (1993), 21.
18. Maria Todorova, Imagining the Balkans (New York, NY 1997);
19. K.E. Fleming, 'Orientalism, the Balkans and Balkan Historiography', American Historical Review, Vol. 105 (2000), 1218-33;
20. Larry Wolff, 'The Innocence and Natural Liberty of Morlacchia', Dialectical Anthropology, Vol. 27 (2003), 93-104.
21. Russell A. Berman, Enlightenment or Empire: Colonial Discourse in German Culture (Lincoln, NE and London 1998), 155;
22. Clemens Ruthner, 'Central Europe Goes Postcolonial. New Approaches to the Habsburg Empire Around 1900', Cultural Studies, Vol. 16 (2002), 877-83;
23. Michael Herzfeld, 'The Absent Presence: Discourses of Crypto-Colonialism', South Atlantic Quarterly, Vol. 101 (2002), 899-926;
24. Andrew Hammond, 'The Uses of Balkanism: Representation and Power in British Travel Writing, 1850-1914', Slavonic and East European Review, Vol. 82 (2004) 601-24.
25. Domokos Kosáry, 'Les antécédents de la révolution industrielle en Hongrie. Hypothèses et réalités', Acta historica Academiae Scientiarum Hungariae, Vol. 21 (1975), 365-75,
26. and Katherine Verdery, 'Internal Colonialism in Austria-Hungary', Ethnie and Racial Studies, Vol. 2 (1979), 378-99 questioned the application of the colonial paradigm to Austrian rule in Hungary and Transylvania.
27. But the Banat of Temesvar was separately administered by Vienna until 1778: Sonja Jordan, Die kaiserliche Wirtschaftspolitik im Banat im 18. Jahrhundert (Munich 1967);
28. Karl Roider, 'Nationalism and Colonization in the Banat of Temesvar, 1718-1778', in Ivo Banac et al., eds, Nation and Ideology (New York, NY 1981), 87-100;
29. Colin Thomas, 'The Anatomy of a Colonization Frontier: The Banat of Temesvar', Austrian History Yearbook, Vol. 19-20, Part 2 (1983-4), 3-22;
30. and Jean Bérenger, A History of the Habsburg Empire 1700-1918, trans. C.A. Simpson (London and New York, NY 1997), 88, all stress the region's 'coloniality'.
31. Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism's Culture (Cambridge 1994), 51;
32. Claire Lyons and John Papadopoulos, eds, The Archaeology of Colonialism (Los Angeles, CA 2002);
33. Stephan Velychenko, 'Postcolonialism and Ukrainian History', Ab Imperio, nr. 1 (2004), 391-404.
34. Yasmine Marcil, 'Tahiti entre mythe et doute. Les comptes rendus du Récit de voyage de Bougainville', in S. Linon-Chipon et al., eds, Miroirs de textes (Nice 1998), 257-69;
35. Nicolaas Rupke, 'A Geography of Enlightenment: The Critical Reception of Alexander von Humboldt's Mexico Work', in D. Livingstone and C. Withers, eds, Geography and Enlightenment (Chicago, IL 1999), 319-41;
36. Nicholas Thomas and Oliver Berghof, 'The Reception and Influence of the Voyage', in their edition of Georg Förster, A Voyage Round the World, (Honolulu, HI 2000), Vol. 1, xxxvi-xliii;
37. Charles Withers, 'The Geography of Scientific Knowledge', in N. Rupke, ed., Göttingen and the Development of the Natural Sciences (Göttingen 2002), 9-18;
38. Françoise Knopper, 'Öffentlichkeit und Meinungsfreiheit. Repliken und Gegenschriften zu Reisebeschreibungen am Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts', in A. Bauerkämper et al., eds, Die Welt erfahren. Reisen als kulturelle Begegnung von 1780 bis heute (Berlin 2004), 219-38.
39. Marie Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes. Travel Writing and Transculturation (London 1992);
40. Katherine Turner, British Travel Writers in Europe, 1750-1800: Authorship, Gender, and National Identity (Aldershot and Burlington, VT 2001);
41. Nigel Leask, Curiosity and the Aesthetics of Travel Writing, 1770-1840 (Oxford 2002).
42. As Anglophone anthologies (most recently Tim Fulford and Peter Kitson, eds, Travels, Explorations and Empires: Writings from the Era of Imperial Expansion 1770-1835, 8 Vols [London 2001-3]) ignore travel to South-Eastern Europe,
43. and Greek scholars: M. Holban et al., eds, Cǎlǎtori strǎini despre ţǎrile române, 10 Vols (Bucharest 1968-2001);
44. Chuzhdi pǔtepisi za balkanite, 9 Vols (Sofia 1975-);
45. Kyriakis Simopoulos, Xenoi taxidiotes stin Ellada, 4 Vols (Athens 1975-82).
46. Ioli Vingopoulou and Rania Polycandrioti, 'Travel Literature on South-Eastern Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean, 15th-19th Centuries', in L. Droulia, ed., On Travel Literature and Related Subjects (Athens 1993), 17-155 are better on Greek territory than on the more northerly lands treated here.
47. Osservazioni . . . sopra diversi pezzi del Viaggio in Dalmazia del Signor Abate Fortis, coll'aggiunta della vita di Socivizca (Venice 1776);
48. see Larry Wolff, Venice and the Slavs. The Discovery of Dalmatia in the Age of Enlightenment (Stanford, CA 2001).
49. Andrei Pippidi, 'Naissance, renaissances et mort du "Bon Sauvage"', Cahiers roumains d'études littéraires, nr. 2 (1979), 55-75;
50. repr. in idem, Hommes et idées du sud-est européen à l'aube de l'âge moderne (Bucharest and Paris 1980), 1-23.
51. Robert Townson, 'Anecdotes of Baron Born, The Celebrated Bohemian Chymist', Annual Register, Vol. 39 (1797), 384-8;
52. Joseph, Baron von Hormayr, Oesterreichischer Plutarch, 20 Vols (Vienna 1807-14), Vol. 9, 158-64.
53. See now Dolf Lindner, Ignaz von Born: Master der Wahren Eintracht (Vienna 1986) (convincingly refutes older claims that Born was born in Kapnik, Maramureş);
54. Helmut Reinalter, ed., Die Aufklärung in Österreich. Ignaz von Born und seiner Zeit (Frankfurt and New York, NY 1991);
55. Mihai Mitu, 'Un fiu al Transilvaniei - geniu european: Ignaz von Born', Zeitschrift zur Germanistik Rumäniens, Heft 1-2 (1998), 133-40.
56. Reprinted with English translation in Judith Eckelmayer, The Cultural Context of Mozart's The Magic Flute, 2 Vols (Lewiston, Queenston and Lampeter 1991) Vol. 2, 239-475.
57. Mikulás Teich, 'Born's Amalgamation Process and the International Metallurgic Gathering at Skleno in 1786', Annals of Science, Vol. 32 (1975), 305-40;
58. Alberto Basso, L'invenzione della gioia. Musica e massoneria nell'età dei lumi (Rome 1994);
59. e siècles) (Paris 2002), 135-45;
60. Derek Beales, 'Court, Government and Society in Mozart's Vienna', in S. Sadie, ed., Wolfgang Amadé Mozart (Oxford 1996), 3-20.
61. Ioan Chindriş, 'Horia şi masoneria?', Anuarul institutului de istorie Cluj, Vol. 37 (1998), 291-301, suggests Born might have been involved in the sparking of Horia's peasant uprising in Transylvania in 1785. The evidence is slim, beyond some interesting Romanian-language oaths taken at the Zur wahren Eintracht lodge.
62. Peter Horwath, 'Literature in the Service of Enlightened Absolutism: The Age of Joseph II', Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, Vol. 56 (1967), 717;
63. Paul Peter Bernard, Jesuits and Jacobins (Urbana, IL 1972), 75-7;
64. Ernst Wangermann, 'Reform Catholicism and Political Radicalism in the Austrian Enlightenment', in R. Porter and M. Teich, eds, The Enlightenment in National Context (Cambridge 1981), 139;
65. R.J.W. Evans, 'Die Anfänge der Aufklärung in Österreich', Das achtzehente Jahrhundert und Österreich, Vol. 2 (1985), 14, 21;
66. Domokos Kosáry, Culture and Society in Eighteenth-Century Hungary, trans. Z. Béres (Budapest 1987), 180;
67. Ritchie Robertson and Edward Timms, eds, The Austrian Enlightenment and its Aftermath (Edinburgh 1991), 162;
68. Éva Balázs, Hungary and the Habsburgs 1765-1800, trans. T. Wilkinson (Budapest and London 1997), 272;
69. Kurt Vocelka, 'Enlightenment in the Habsburg Monarchy', in O. Grell and R. Porter, eds, Toleration in Enlightenment Europe (Oxford 2000), 207;
70. Robin Okey, The Habsburg Monarchy c.1765-1918 (Basingstoke 2001), 31-2;
71. Paula Sutter Fichtner, The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848 (Basingstoke 2003), 164.
72. Ignatz von Born, Catalogus bibliothecae bornianae publica auctione vendetur die 10 novembris 1791 (Vienna 1791).
73. Helmut Reinalter, most recently in Werner Schneiders, ed., The Enlightenment in Europe: Unity and Diversity (Berlin 2003).
74. T.C.W. Blanning, Joseph II (London and New York, NY 1994), 164-70;
75. James Van Horn Melton, The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe (Cambridge 2001), 252-72;
76. Ute Daniel, 'How Bourgeois was the Public Sphere?', Das achtzehnte Jahrhundert, Vol. 26 (2002), 9-17.
77. Helmut Reinalter, ed., Joseph II. und die Freimaurerei (Vienna 1987);
78. For example, Stefan Nicolescu, Excursion Guide. Field trip E1, Banat and Transylvanian Gold District, Romania. M&M 3, 3rd International Conference on Mineralogy and Museums (Budapest 1996).
79. N. Iorga, Istoria românilor prin cǎlǎtori, 4 Vols (Bucharest 1928);
80. Klaus Heitmann, Das Rumänenbild im deutschen Sprachraum, 1775-1918 (Vienna and Cologne 1986).
81. The first Romanian scholar to treat Born was Dan Lǎzǎrescu, Imaginea României prin cǎlǎtori, vol. 1: 1716-1789 (Bucharest 1985), 239-47;
82. But he does not mention Born in his 1770 travel notes, published by Costin Feneşan, 'Die zweite Reise Kaiser Josephs II. ins Temeswarer Banat', Mitteilungen des österreichischen Staatsarchivs, Vol. 45 (1997), 233-47.
83. General Splény's 1775 report on Bucovina was summarized and published as a travel account in Canzler's Magazin (Radu Grigorovici, ed., Bucovina în primele descrieri geografice, istorice, economice şi demografice [Bucharest 1998], 10-14);
84. librettist Ratschky was commissioned by Joseph to write an account of Galicia in the 1780s (Edith Rosenstrauch-Königsberg, Zirkel und Zentren. Aufsätze zur Aufklärung in Österreich [Vienna 1992], 103-20).
85. Ladislau Gyémánt, Mişcarea naţionalǎ a românilor din Transilvania (Bucharest 1986), 60-71;
86. Noel Malcolm, 'Myths of Albanian National Identity', in S. Schwandner-Sievers and B. Fischer, eds, Albanian Identities (London 2002), 70-87.
87. Maria Holban, 'Pretinsele aventuri în Ţara Româneascǎ ale unui pretins cǎlǎtor german din secolul XVIII', Românii în istoria universalǎ, Vol. 3 (Iaşi 1988), 93-110.
88. Demetrii Kantemir, Historisch- geographisch- und politische Beschreibung der Moldau (Frankfurt and Leipzig 1771);
89. Nicolaus Kleemann, Reisen von Wien über Belgrad bis Kilianova (Vienna 1771; reed. Leipzig 1773).
90. Johann Jakob Ferber, Briefe aus Wälschland (Prague 1773).
91. Balthasar Hacquet, 'Lettera odeporica . . . al Sig. Cavalere di Born contenente i dettagli d'un viaggio fluviatile, fatto pel Illiria Ungarese e Turchesco', Opuscoli scelti sulle scienze e sulle arti, Vol. 1 (Milan 1778), 5-27;
92. Joseph Mueller, Lettre à M. le Chevalier de Born sur la Tourmaline du Tirol (Brussels and Paris 1779);
93. Tobias Gruber, Briefe hydrographischen und physikalischen Inhalts aus Krain, an I. von Born (Vienna 1781).
94. Johann David Schöpf, Beyträge zur mineralogischen Kenntniss des östlichen Theils von Nordamerica und seiner Gebürge (Erlangen 1787), first published in Born's review Physikalische Arbeiten in 1785.
95. Daniel Barbu, ed., Firea românilor (Bucharest 2000), 11-37 extracts ethnographic observations from Cǎlǎtori strǎini.
96. On the medieval tradition see Adolf Armbruster, Der Donau-Karpatenraum in den mittel- und westeuropäischen Quellen des 10.-16. Jahrhunderts (Cologne 1990).
97. Catholic missionary accounts in Cǎlǎtori strǎini, Vols 5-9, passim;
98. I.G. Tóth, ed., Relationes missionariorum de Hungaria et Transilvania (1627-1707) (Rome and Budapest 1994).
99. th Centuries', Etudes balkaniques, Vol. 29 (1993), 43-54;
100. Cristina Codarcea, 'Rome et Byzance dans les pays roumains à travers les récits des missionnaires catholiques (1620-1660)', in S. Graciotti, ed., Italia e Romania. Due popoli e due storie a confronto (Florence 1998), 227-38;
101. I. G. Tóth, 'Missionari italiani in Ungheria e Transilvania nel seicento', Rivista storica italiana, Vol. 116 (2004), 122-43. Aspects of this tradition may have been available to Born through his Jesuit apprenticeship.
102. Costin Feneşan, Administraţie şi fiscalitate în Banatul imperial (1716-1778) (Timişoara 1997), 7-8.
103. Cf. Franz Szabo, 'Austrian First Impressions of Ethnic Relations in Galicia', Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry, Vol. 12 (1999), 49-60.
104. William E. Stewart, Die Reisebeschreibung und ihre Theorie im Deutschland des 18. Jahrhunderts (Bonn 1978);
105. Werner Bauer, 'Journalistische Briefform und politisches Engagement in der österreichischen Aufklärung', in B.I. Krasnobaev et al., eds, Reisen und Reisebeschreibungen im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert (Berlin 1980);
106. John Howland, The Letter Form and the French Enlightenment (New York 1991), 50-61;
107. Françoise Knopper, Le regard du voyageur en Allemagne du Sud et en Autriche (1775-1800) (Nancy 1992);
108. Wolfgang Griep, 'Annäherungen: Über Reisen und Aufklärung in der zweiten Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts', in C.-V. Klenke et al., eds, Georg Förster in interdisziplinärer Perspektive (Berlin 1994), 103-14.
109. Victor Neumann, 'Cultura din Banat la începutul evului modern. Primul ziar local: Temeswarer Nachrichten', Studii de istorie a Banatului, Vol. 21-2 (1997-8), 121-7.
110. Anon, review of Born, Briefe, in Physikalische Bibliothek, Vol. 1 (1775), 309-13.
111. John Patrick Carswell, The Prospector. Being the Life and Times of Rudolf Erich Raspe, 1737-1794 (London 1950).
112. Smith, Wealth of Nations, Book 4, part ix, para. 47;
113. cf. Montesquieu, Esprit des lois, Book 15, part viii, para. 3.
114. Montesquieu had been in person to Upper Hungary (Balázs, op. cit., 26) but not to the Banat.
115. György Gömöri, Angol és skót utazók a régi Magyarországon 1542-1737 (Budapest 1994) treats earlier accounts (Edmund Chishull, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Richard Pococke).
116. Anon, review of Born, Travels, in Monthly Review, Vol. 57 (1777), 233.
117. Anon, review of Born, Travels, in Critical Review, Vol. 43 (1777), 280;
118. adapted version in Scots Magazine, Vol. 39 (April 1777), 207.
119. Charles Batten, Jr, Pleasurable Instruction. Form and Convention in Eighteenth-Century Travel Literature (Berkeley, CA and London 1978), 29.
120. Inigo (Baron) Born, 'Account of the Inhabitants of Wallachia', Annual Register (1777), 'Characters' section, 47-9;
121. idem, 'Curious Account of Wallachia, Describing the Situation of the Country, and the Manners and Customs of the Inhabitants', London Magazine, Vol. 48 (1779), 16-18.
122. Alberto Fortis, on the Morlacks, Annual Register (1778), 'Characters' section, 43-65;
123. Giovanni Lovrich, 'Adventures of Captain Socivizca', London Magazine, Vol. 48 (1779), 5-6, 51-3, 156-8, 216-19.
124. Inigo (Baron) Born, Travels through the Bannat of Temeswar, Transylvania and Hungary In the Year 1770, trans. R.E. Raspe (London 1777), 22-3.
125. Pat Rogers, Boswell and Johnson (Oxford 1995), 108-38 shows how Dr Johnson third-personized his (originally epistolary) account of his tour of Scotland.
126. Barbara Benedict, Making the Modern Reader. Cultural Mediation in Early Modern Literary Anthologies (Princeton, NJ 1996), 165.
127. Ezio Vaccari, Giovanni Arduino (1714-1795) (Florence 1993), 291-2;
128. Žarko Muljačič, 'Su alcuni scritti sconosciuti di A. Fortis', Giornale storico della letteratura italiana, Vol. 154 (1977), 261-6.
129. Ignazio, Cavaliere di Born, 'Lettere', Nuovo Giornale d'Italia, Vol. 1 (1776-7), 57-63, 73-7, 81-5, 91-6, 116-20, 137-42, 149-51, 158-9, 175-6, 182-4, 227-32, 233-9, 249-56, 257-9.
130. Francesco Griselini, 'Lettere', Nuovo Giornale d'Italia, Vol. 3 (1778), 34-40, 43-7, 53-6, 62-4, 68-72, 79-80, 83-9, 91-5.
131. Ignazio, Cavaliere di Born, Viaggio mineralogico fatto pel Bannato di Temeswar, per la Transilvania, e per l'alta e bassa Ungaria (Venice 1778), 184-204.
132. Barbara Maria Stafford, Voyage into Substance: Art, Science, Nature and the Illustrated Travel Account, 1760-1840 (Cambridge, MA and London 1984), 345.
133. Ignaz von Born, Voyage minéralogique fait en Hongrie et en Transylvanie, tr. A. Monnet (Paris 1780), v-vi.
134. Robert Townson, Travels in Hungary (London 1797), 257, 252-5.
135. Townson, Voyage en Hongrie, trans. Cantwel, 3 Vols (Paris An 7 [1799]), Vol. 1, xxxviii-lvi. 1st reissue: Leipzig 1800; 2nd reissue: Paris 1803.
136. Roy Porter, The Making of Geology: Earth Science in Britain 1660-1815 (Cambridge 1977), 98-9;
137. Richard Hamblyn, 'Private Cabinets and Popular Geology: The British Audiences for Volcanoes in the Eighteenth Century', in C. Chard and H. Langdon, eds, Transports: Travel, Pleasure and Imaginative Geography, 1600-1830 (New Haven, CT and London 1996), 194.
138. Paul Kaufman, Borrowings from the Bristol Library, 1773-1784 (Charlottesville, VA 1960), 80.
139. idem, 'Anecdotes of Baron Born'.
140. Edward Daniel Clarke, Travels in Various Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa, 4th edn. (London 1818), Vol. 8, 284, 260.
141. Richard Bright, Travels from Vienna through Lower Hungary (Edinburgh 1818), 559.
142. James Noyes, Roumania: The Border Land of the Christian and the Turk (New York 1858), 161-70.
143. Anon, 'Literary Intelligence', Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. 78 (1808), 338.
144. Hayden White, Tropics of Discourse (Baltimore, MD 1978), 150.
145. Richard Nash, Wild Enlightenment. The Borders of Human Identity in the Eighteenth Century (Charlottesville, VA 2003), 6.
146. and Raymond Schwab, La renaissance orientale (Paris 1950), both also in English translation;
147. Jaroslav Vávra, 'Ignaz von Born als führende Persönlichkeit der Aufklärungsepoche in Böhmen', in É. Balázs et al., eds, Beförderer der Aufklärung in Mittel- und Osteuropa (Berlin 1979), 141-6;
148. Mikulás Teich, 'Bohemia: From Darkness into Light', in Teich and Porter, eds, op. cit., 151-2;
149. Josef Haubelt, 'Born und Böhmen', in Reinalter, ed., Die Aufklärung, 99-116;
150. Hugh Agnew, Origins of the Czech National Renascence (Pittsburgh, PA 1993), 30, 203-4;
151. Jiři Kroupa, 'The Alchemy of Happiness: the Enlightenment in the Moravian context', in M. Teich, ed., Bohemia in History (Cambridge 1998), 174.
152. See Grete Klingenstein, 'The Meanings of "Austria" and "Austrian" in the Eighteenth Century', in G. Gibbs, R. Oresko and H. Scott, eds, Royal and Republican Sovereignty in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge 1996), 425.
153. Michael Dettelbach, 'Global Physics and Aesthetic Empire: Humboldt's Physical Portrait of the Tropics', in D.P. Miller and P.H. Reill, eds, Visions of Empire (Cambridge 1996), 258-9;
154. Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra, How To Write the History of the New World. Histories, Epistemologies, and Identities in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World (Stanford, CA 2001), 4.
155. Justin Stagl, A History of Curiosity. The Theory of Travel 1550-1800 (Chur and Reading 1995);
156. H. Vermeulen and A. Alvarez Roldán, eds, Fieldwork and Footnotes: Studies in the History of European Anthropology (London 1995).
157. Catherine Carmichael, 'Ethnic Stereotypes in Early European Ethnographies: A Case Study of the Habsburg Adriatic, c. 1770-1815', Narodna umjetnost, Vol. 33 (1996), 197-209;
158. among many recent studies on Russian imperial ethnography, see Yuri Slezkine, 'Naturalists versus Nations: Eighteenth-Century Russian Scholars Confront Ethnic Diversity', in Pagden, ed., op. cit., Vol. 2;
159. Willard Sunderland, Taming the Wild Field: Colonization and Empire on the Russian Steppe (Ithaca, NY 2004).
160. Thomas Habinek, The Politics of Latin Literature (Princeton, NJ 1998), 151-69;
161. The idea of frontier ethnology restoring a sense of imperial order had been familiar in Byzantium too: see Paul Stephenson, 'Byzantine Conceptions of Otherness after the Annexation of Bulgaria (1018)', in D. Smythe, ed., Strangers to Themselves: The Byzantine Outsider (Aldershot 2000), 245-57.
162. For example, Wim Willems, In Search of the True Gypsy, trans. D. Bloch (London 1997);
163. Jonathan Hess, 'Johann David Michaelis and the Colonial Imaginary: Orientalism and the Emergence of Racial Antisemitism', Jewish Social Studies, Vol. 6 (2000), 56-101.
164. Heinrich Moritz Grellmann, Dissertation on the Gipsies, trans. M. Raper (London 1787), 41-3, 206.
165. Maria Theresa, Letter to Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, 31 July 1777
166. cited by Hugh Ragsdale, 'Evaluating the Traditions of Russian Aggression: Catherine II and the Greek Project', Slavonic and East European Review, Vol. 66 (1988), 94. 'Greeks' here could mean any Eastern Orthodox peoples (i.e. Romanians included), or particularly the governors of Wallachia and Moldavia, appointed from the Greek-speaking Orthodox of Istanbul.
167. Karl Roider, Austria's Eastern Question, 1700-1790 (Princeton, NJ 1982), 132.
168. For example, Margaret Hunt, 'Racism, Imperialism and the Traveller's Gaze in Eighteenth-Century England', Journal of British Studies, Vol. 32 (1993), 332-57.
169. On the Empress's antisemitism see Vocelka, op. cit.
170. Karl Roider, 'Reform and Diplomacy in the Eighteenth-Century Habsburg Monarchy', in C. Ingrao, ed., State and Society in Early Modern Austria (West Lafayette, IN 1994), 312-3;
171. Robert Jones, 'Opposition to War and Expansion in Late Eighteenth-Century Russia', Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, Vol. 32 (1984), 48.
172. On these Romanians' contacts with Born see Alexandru Duţu, 'Der Josephinismus als zivilisatorischer Prozeß und die rumänische kulturelle Tradition, ' in H. Reinalter, ed., Der Josephinismus (Frankfurt 1993), 121-35.
173. For such Romanian self-affirmations, see Sorin Mitu, National Identity of Romanians in Transylvania, trans. S. Corneanu (Budapest 2001);
174. Alex Drace-Francis, 'Cultural Currents and Political Choices: Romanian Intellectuals in the Banat to 1848', Austrian History Yearbook, Vol. 36 (2005), 65-93.
175. In earlier times too, most describers of Ottoman lands came from Venice, the Habsburg lands and points east, as Stéphane Yérasimos, Les voyageurs dans l'Empire ottoman, XIV-XVI (Ankara 1991) clearly showed.
176. On the allegorical qualities of Enlightenment discourse on human nature see, among others, Marie Louise Pratt, 'Scratches on the Face of the Country', Critical Inquiry (1985), 119-43
177. D.L. Macdonald, 'The Isle of Devils: the Jamaican Journal of M.J. Lewis', in T. Fulford and P. Kitson, eds, Romanticism and Colonialism (Cambridge 1998), 191-2;
178. Thomas Munck, The Enlightenment: A Comparative Social History (London 2000), 14;
179. Kathleen Wilson, 'Thinking Back: Gender Misrecognition and Polynesian Subversions Aboard the Cook Voyages', in eadem, ed., A New Imperial History (Cambridge 2004), 362.
180. Cited by Roger Smith, 'The Language of Human Nature', in C. Fox, R. Porter and R. Wokler, eds, Inventing Human Science (Berkeley, Los Angeles, CA and London 1995), 102.