The role of executive function and attention in gait

Movement Disorders

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 329-342

  Yogev Seligmann, Galit ^a,b   Hausdorff, Jeffrey M ^a,b,c   Giladi, Nir ^a,b  

^a TEL AVIV SOURASKY MEDICAL CENTER   (Israel)

^b TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

^c HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

Aging; Alzheimer's disease; Attention; Dual task; Executive function; Gait; Parkinson's disease; Review article

Indexed keywords

AGING; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ATTENTION; BODY EQUILIBRIUM; BRAIN FUNCTION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COST UTILITY ANALYSIS; DAILY LIFE ACTIVITY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; FALL RISK; GAIT DISORDER; HUMAN; MOTOR CONTROL; MOTOR COORDINATION; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; PARKINSON DISEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SELF CONCEPT; TASK PERFORMANCE; WALKING SPEED; GAIT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; PROBLEM SOLVING; WALKING;

ATTENTION; GAIT; GAIT DISORDERS, NEUROLOGIC; HUMANS; PROBLEM SOLVING; WALKING;

EID: 43049178496     PISSN: 08853185     EISSN: 15318257     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/mds.21720     Document Type: Review

References (158)

1. Malouin F, Richards CL, Jackson PL, Dumas F, Doyon J. Brain activations during motor imagery of locomotor-related tasks: a PET study. Hum Brain Mapp 2003;19:47-62.
2. Sheridan PL, Hausdorff JM. The role of higher-level cognitive function in gait: executive dysfunction contributes to fall risk in Alzheimer's disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2007;24:125-137.
3. Adams R, Parsons O. Neuropsychology for clinical practice: etiology, assessment, and treatment of common neurologic disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2003.
4. Fuster JM. Synopsis of function and dysfunction of the frontal lobe. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1999;395:51-57.
5. Lezak MD. Neuropsychological assessment. New York: Oxford University Press; 1995.
6. Goethals I, Audenaert K, Van de WC, Dierckx R. The prefrontal cortex: insights from functional neuroimaging using cognitive activation tasks. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2004;31:408-416.
7. Stuss DT, Levine B. Adult clinical neuropsychology: lessons from studies of the frontal lobes. Annu Rev Psychol 2002;53: 401-433.
8. Lorenz-Reuter PA. Cognitive neuropsychology of the aging brain. In: Park DC, Schawartz N, editors. Cognitive aging: a primer. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis; 2000. p 93-114.
9. Raz N. Aging of the brain and its impact on cognitive performance: integration of structural and functional findings. In: Craik FIM, Salthouse, TA, editors. The handbook of aging and cognition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2000.
10. van Iersel MB, Verbeek AL, Bloem BR, Munneke M, Esselink RA, Rikkert MG. Frail elderly patients with dementia go too fast. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2006;77:874-876.
11. Craik FIM, Grady CL. Aging, memory, and frontal lobe functioning. In: Stuss DT, Knight RT, editors. Principles of frontal lobe function. New York: Oxford University Press; 2002. p 528-540.
12. Ridderinkhof KR, van den Wildenberg WP, Segalowitz SJ, Carter CS. Neurocognitive mechanisms of cognitive control: the role of prefrontal cortex in action selection, response inhibition, performance monitoring, and reward-based learning. Brain Cogn 2004; 56:129-140.
13. Menon V, Adleman NE, White CD, Glover GH, Reiss AL. Error-related brain activation during a Go/NoGo response inhibition task. Hum Brain Mapp 2001;12:131-143.
14. Springer S, Giladi N, Peretz C, Yogev G, Simon ES, Hausdorff JM. Dual-tasking effects on gait variability: the role of aging, falls, and executive function. Mov Disord 2006;21:950-957.
15. Yogev G, Giladi N, Peretz C, Springer S, Simon ES, Hausdorff JM. Dual tasking, gait rhythmicity, and Parkinson's disease: which aspects of gait are attention demanding? Eur J Neurosci 2005;22:1248-1256.
16. Collette F, Hogge M, Salmon E, Van der LM. Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuro-imaging. Neuroscience 2006;139:209-221.
17. Stuss DT, Alexander MP. Executive functions and the frontal lobes: a conceptual view. Psychol Res 2000;63:289-298.
18. Alvarez JA, Emory E. Executive function and the frontal lobes: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychol Rev 2006;16:17-42.
19. Dorfman J. Problem solving, inhibition and frontal lobe function. In: Raz N, editor. The other side of the error term: aging and development as model systems in cognitive neuroscience. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science; 1998. p 395-448.
20. Buckner RL. Memory and executive function in aging and AD: multiple factors that cause decline and reserve factors that compensate. Neuron 2004;44:195-208.
21. Gunning-Dixon FM, Raz N. The cognitive correlates of white matter abnormalities in normal aging: a quantitative review. Neuropsychology 2000;14:224-232.
22. Charlton RA, Barrick TR, McIntyre DJ, et al. White matter damage on diffusion tensor imaging correlates with age-related cognitive decline. Neurology 2006;66:217-222.
23. Gunning-Dixon FM, Raz N. Neuroanatomical correlates of selected executive functions in middle-aged and older adults: a prospective MRI study. Neuropsychologia 2003;41:1929-1941.
24. Shenkin SD, Bastin ME, Macgillivray TJ, et al. Cognitive correlates of cerebral white matter lesions and water diffusion tensor parameters in community-dwelling older people. Cerebrovasc Dis 2005;20:310-318.
25. Burke SN, Barnes CA. Neural plasticity in the ageing brain. Nat Rev Neurosci 2006;7:30-40.
26. Kramer AF. Cognitive plasticity and aging. In: Ross BH, editor. The psychology of learning and motivation, 43 ed. New York: Academic Press; 2003. p 267-302.
27. Ble A, Volpato S, Zuliani G, et al. Executive function correlates with walking speed in older persons: the InCHIANTI study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2005;53:410-415.
28. Coppin AK, Shumway-Cook A, Saczynski JS, et al. Association of executive function and performance of dual-task physical tests among older adults: analyses from the InChianti study. Age Ageing 2006;35:619-624.
29. Holtzer R, Verghese J, Xue X, Lipton RB. Cognitive processes related to gait velocity: results from the Einstein aging study. Neuropsychology 2006;20:215-223.
30. Hausdorff JM, Yogev G, Springer S, Simon ES, Giladi N. Walking is more like catching than tapping: gait in the elderly as a complex cognitive task. Exp Brain Res 2005;164:541-548.
31. Liu-Ambrose T, Pang MY, Eng JJ. Executive function is independently associated with performances of balance and mobility in community-dwelling older adults after mild stroke: implications for falls prevention. Cerebrovasc Dis 2007;23:203-210.
32. Woodruff-Pak DS, Papka M. Theories of neuropsychology and aging. In: Bengston VL, Schaie KW, editors. Handbook of theories of aging. New York: Springer; 1999. p 113-132.
33. Posner MI, Sheese BE, Odludas Y, Tang Y. Analyzing and shaping human attentional networks. Neural Netw 2006;19:1422-1429.
34. Rogers WA. Attention and aging. In: Park DC, Schwarz N, editors. Cognitive aging: a primer. USA: Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis Group; 2006. p 57-71.
35. Tombu M, Jolicoeur P. A central capacity sharing model of dual-task performance. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2003;29:3-18.
36. Ruthruff E, Pashler HE, Klaassen A. Processing bottlenecks in dual-task performance: structural limitation or strategic postponement? Psychon Bull Rev 2001;8:73-80.
37. Pashler H. Dual-task interference in simple tasks: data and theory. Psychol Bull 1994;116:220-244.
38. Schmidt RA, Timothy DL. Motor control and learning. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1999.
39. Sharon M. Organizers and non-organizers: a study on high organizing abilities and divided-attention capacity. Tel-Aviv.: Tcherikover Publishers; 1997.
40. Dreher JC, Grafman J. Dissociating the roles of the rostral anterior cingulate and the lateral prefrontal cortices in performing two tasks simultaneously or successively. Cereb Cortex 2003;13:329-339.
41. MacDonald AW, III, Cohen JD, Stenger VA, Carter CS. Dissociating the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex in cognitive control. Science 2000;288:1835-1838.
42. Szameitat AJ, Schubert T, Muller K, Von Cramon DY. Localization of executive functions in dual-task performance with fMRI. J Cogn Neurosci 2002;14:1184-1199.
43. Schubert T, Szameitat AJ. Functional neuroanatomy of interference in overlapping dual tasks: an fMRI study. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res 2003;17:733-746.
44. Nebel K, Wiese H, Stude P, de Greiff A, Diener HC, Keidel M. On the neural basis of focused and divided attention. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res 2005;25:760-776.
45. Collette F, Olivier L, Van der LM, et al. Involvement of both prefrontal and inferior parietal cortex in dual-task performance. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res 2005;24:237-251.
46. Lajoie Y, Teasdale N, Bard C, Fleury M. Attentional demands for static and dynamic equilibrium. Exp Brain Res 1993;97:139-144.
47. Ebersbach G, Dimitrijevic MR, Poewe W. Influence of concurrent tasks on gait: a dual-task approach. Percept Mot Skills 1995;81:107-113.
48. Lajoie Y, Teasdale N, Bard C, Fleury M. Upright standing and gait: are there changes in attentional requirements related to normal aging? Exp Aging Res 1996;22:185-198.
49. Lindenberger U, Marsiske M, Baltes PB. Memorizing while walking: increase in dual-task costs from young adulthood to old age. Psychol Aging 2000;15:417-436.
50. Li KZ, Lindenberger U, Freund AM, Baltes PB. Walking while memorizing: age-related differences in compensatory behavior. Psychol Sci 2001;12:230-237.
51. Bloem BR, Valkenburg VV, Slabbekoorn M, Willemsen MD. The multiple tasks test: development and normal strategies. Gait Posture 2001;14:191-202.
52. Abernethy B, Hanna A, Plooy A. The attentional demands of preferred and non-preferred gait patterns. Gait Posture 2002;15: 256-265.
53. Sparrow WA, Bradshaw EJ, Lamoureux E, Tirosh O. Ageing effects on the attention demands of walking. Hum Mov Sci 2002;21:961-972.
54. Weerdesteyn V, Schillings AM, van Galen GP, Duysens J. Distraction affects the performance of obstacle avoidance during walking. J Mot Behav 2003;35:53-63.
55. Gage WH, Sleik RJ, Polych MA, McKenzie NC, Brown LA. The allocation of attention during locomotion is altered by anxiety. Exp Brain Res 2003;150:385-394.
56. Schrodt LA, Mercer VS, Giuliani CA, Hartman M. Characteristics of stepping over an obstacle in community dwelling older adults under dual-task conditions. Gait Posture 2004;19:279-287.
57. Bootsma-van der Wiel A, Gussekloo J, de Craen AJ, van Exel E, Bloem BR, Westendorp RG. Walking and talking as predictors of falls in the general population: the Leiden 85-plus study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2003;51:1466-1471.
58. Shkuratova N, Morris ME, Huxham F. Effects of age on balance control during walking. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004;85:582-588.
59. Beauchet O, Dubost V, Herrmann FR, Kressig RW. Stride-to-stride variability while backward counting among healthy young adults. J Neuroengineering Rehabil 2005;2:26.
60. Grabiner MD, Troy KL. Attention demanding tasks during treadmill walking reduce step width variability in young adults. J Neuroengineering Rehabil 2005;2:25.
61. Regnaux JP, Robertson J, Ben Smail D, Daniel O, Bussel B. Human treadmill walking needs attention. J Neuroengineering Rehabil 2006;3:19.
62. Dubost V, Kressig RW, Gonthier R, et al. Relationships between dual-task related changes in stride velocity and stride time variability in healthy older adults. Hum Mov Sci 2006;25:372-382.
63. Holtman JH, Kovash FM, Kubik JJ, Linbo RA. Age-related differences in spatiotemporal markers of gait stability during dual task walking. Gait Posture 2007;26:113-119.
64. Faulkner KA, Redfern MS, Rosano C, et al. Reciprocal influence of concurrent walking and cognitive testing on performance in older adults. Gait Posture 2006;24:182-189.
65. Faulkner KA, Redfern MS, Cauley JA, et al. Multitasking: association between poorer performance and a history of recurrent falls. J Am Geriatr Soc 2007;55:570-576.
66. Beauchet O, Dubost V, Allah G, Gonthier R, Hermann FR, Kressig RW. 'Faster counting while walking' as a predictor of falls in older adults. Age Ageing 2007;36:418-423.
67. van Iersel MB, Ribbers H, Munneke M, Borm GF, Rikkert MG. The effect of cognitive dual tasks on balance during walking in physically fit elderly people. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007;88: 187-191.
68. Verghese J, Kuslansky G, Holtzer R, et al. Walking while talking: effect of task prioritization in the elderly. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007;88:50-53.
69. Lundin-Olsson L, Nyberg L, Gustafson Y. "Stops walking when talking" as a predictor of falls in elderly people. Lancet 1997; 349:617.
70. de Hoon EW, Allum JH, Carpenter MG, et al. Quantitative assessment of the stops walking while talking test in the elderly. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003;84:838-842.
71. Beauchet O, Dubost V, Aminian K, Gonthier R, Kressig RW. Dual-task-related gait changes in the elderly: does the type of cognitive task matter? J Mot Behav 2005;37:259-264.
72. Toulotte C, Thevenon A, Watelain E, Fabre C. Identification of healthy elderly fallers and non-fallers by gait analysis under dual-task conditions. Clin Rehabil 2006;20:269-276.
73. Wellmon R, Pezzillo K, Eichhorn G, Lockhart W, Morris J. Changes in dual-task voice reaction time among elders who use assistive devices. J Geriatr Phys Ther 2006;29:74-80.
74. Toulotte C, Thevenon A, Fabre C. Effects of training and detraining on the static and dynamic balance in elderly fallers and non-fallers: a pilot study. Disabil Rehabil 2006;28:125-133.
75. Morris ME, Iansek R, Matyas TA, Summers JJ. Stride length regulation in Parkinson's disease. Normalization strategies and underlying mechanisms. Brain 1996;119 (Part 2):551-568.
76. Camicioli R, Oken BS, Sexton G, Kaye JA, Nutt JG. Verbal fluency task affects gait in Parkinson's disease with motor freezing. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1998;11:181-185.
77. Bond JM, Morris M. Goal-directed secondary motor tasks: their effects on gait in subjects with Parkinson disease. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000;81:110-116.
78. Bloem BR, Valkenburg VV, Slabbekoorn M, van Dijk JG. The multiple tasks test. Strategies in Parkinson's disease. Exp Brain Res 2001;137:478-486.
79. O'Shea S, Morris ME, Iansek R. Dual task interference during gait in people with Parkinson disease: effects of motor versus cognitive secondary tasks. Phys Ther 2002;82:888-897.
80. Hausdorff JM, Balash J, Giladi N. Effects of cognitive challenge on gait variability in patients with Parkinson's disease. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2003;16:53-58.
81. Canning CG. The effect of directing attention during walking under dual-task conditions in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2005;11:95-99.
82. Rochester L, Hetherington V, Jones D, et al. The effect of external rhythmic cues (auditory and visual) on walking during a functional task in homes of people with Parkinson's disease. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86:999-1006.
83. Galletly R, Brauer SG. Does the type of concurrent task affect preferred and cued gait in people with Parkinson's disease? Aust J Physiother 2005;51:175-180.
84. Yogev G, Plotnik M, Peretz C, Giladi N, Hausdorff JM. Gait asymmetry in patients with Parkinson's disease and elderly fallers: when does the bilateral coordination of gait require attention? Exp Brain Res 207;117:336-346.
85. Sheridan PL, Solomont J, Kowall N, Hausdorff JM. Influence of executive function on locomotor function: divided attention increases gait variability in Alzheimer's disease. J Am Geriatr Soc 2003;51:1633-1637.
86. Camicioli R, Bouchard T, Licis L. Dual-tasks and walking fast: relationship to extra-pyramidal signs in advanced Alzheimer disease. J Neurol Sci 2006;248:205-209.
87. Allali G, Kressig RW, Assal F, Herrmann FR, Dubost V, Beauchet O. Changes in gait while backward counting in demented older adults with frontal lobe dysfunction. Gait Posture (in press).
88. Pettersson AF, Olsson E, Wahlund LO. Effect of divided attention on gait in subjects with and without cognitive impairment. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2007;20:58-62.
89. Bowen A, Wenman R, Mickelborough J, Foster J, Hill E, Tallis R. Dual-task effects of talking while walking on velocity and balance following a stroke. Age Ageing 2001;30:319-323.
90. Cockburn J, Haggard P, Cock J, Fordhant C. Changing patterns of cognitive-motor interference (CMI) over time during recovery from stroke. Clin Rehabil 2003;17:167-173.
91. Hyndman D, Ashburn A. Stops walking when talking as a predictor of falls in people with stroke living in the community. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004;75:994-997.
92. Regnaux JP, David D, Daniel O, Smail DB, Combeaud M, Bussel B. Evidence for cognitive processes involved in the control of steady state of walking in healthy subjects and after cerebral damage. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2005;19:125-132.
93. Canning CG, Ada L, Paul SS. Is automaticity of walking regained aftet stroke? Disabil Rehabil 2006;28:97-102.
94. Lord SE, Rochester L, Weatherall M, McPherson KM, McNaughton HK. The effect of environment and task on gait parameters after stroke: a randomized comparison of measurement conditions. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2006;87:967-973.
95. Hyndman D, Ashburn A, Yardley L, Stack E. Interference between balance, gait and cognitive task performance among people with stroke living in the community. Disabil Rehabil 2006;28: 849-856.
96. Yang YR, Chen YC, Lee CS, Cheng SJ, Wang RY. Dual-task-related gait changes in individuals with stroke. Gait Posture 2007;25:185-190.
97. Haggard P, Cockburn J, Cock J, Fordharn C, Wade D. Interference between gait and cognitive tasks in a rehabilitating neurological population. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000;69:479-486.
98. Catena RD, van Donkelaar P, Chou LS. Cognitive task effects on gait stability following concussion. Exp Brain Res 2007;176:23-31.
99. Parker TM, Ostemig LR, van Donkelaar P, Chou LS. Gait stability following concussion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006;38:1032-1040.
100. Vallee M, McFadyen BJ, Swaine B, Doyon J, Cantin JF, Dumas D. Effects of environmental demands on locomotion after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2006;87:806-813.
101. Leitner Y, Barak R, Giladi N, et al. Gait in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effects of methylphenidate and dual tasking. J Neurol (in press).
102. Woollacott M, Shumway-Cook A. Attention and the control of posture and gait: a review of an emerging area of research. Gait Posture 2002;16:1-14.
103. Holtzer R, Stern Y, Rakifin BC. Age-related differences in executive control of working memory. Mern Cognit 2004;32:1333-1345.
104. Holtzer R, Stern Y, Rakitin BC. Predicting age-related dual-task effects with individual differences on neuropsychological tests. Neuropsychology 2005;19:18-27.
105. Chen HC, Schultz AB, Ashton-Miller JA, Giordani B, Alexander NB, Guire KE. Stepping over obstacles: dividing attention impairs performance of old more than young adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1996;51:M116-M122.
106. Gerin-Lajoie M, Richards CL, McFadyen BJ. The negotiation of stationary and moving obstructions during walking: anticipatory locomotor adaptations and preservation of personal space. Motor Control 2005;9:242-269.
107. Albert MS. Cognitive and neurobiologic markers of early Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996;93:13547-13551.
108. Baddeley AD, Baddeley HA, Bucks RS, Wilcock GK. Attentional control in Alzheimer's disease. Brain 2001;124:1492-1508.
109. Bedard MA, el Massioui F, Malapani C, et al. Attentional deficits in Parkinson's disease: partial reversibility with naphtoxazine (SDZ NVI-085), a selective noradrenergic α1 agonist. Clin Neuropharmacol 1998;21:108-117.
110. Binetti G, Magni E, Padovani A, Cappa SF, Bianchetti A, Trabucchi M. Executive dysfunction in early Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996;60:91-93.
111. Dubois B, Pillon B. Cognitive deficits in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol 1997;244:2-8.
112. Nakamura T, Meguro K, Sasaki H. Relationship between falls and stride length variability in senile dementia of the Alzheimer type. Gerontology 1996;42:108-113.
113. Rochester L, Hetherington V, Jones D, et al. Attending to the task: interference effects of functional tasks on walking in Parkinson's disease and the roles of cognition, depression, fatigue, and balance. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004;85:1578-1585.
114. Schaafsma JD, Giladi N, Balash Y, Bartels AL, Gurevich T, Hausdorff JM. Gait dynamics in Parkinson's disease: relationship to Parkinsonian features, falls and response to levodopa. J Neurol Sci 2003;212:47-53.
115. Visser H. Gait and balance in senile dementia of Alzheimer's type. Age Ageing 1983;12:296-301.
116. Giladi N, Nieuwboer A. Gait disturbances. In: Factor SA, Weiner WJ, editors. Parkinson's disease: diagnosis and medical management demos medical publishing (in press).
117. Baltadjieva R, Giladi N, Gruendlinger L, Peretz C, Hausdorff JM. Marked alterations in the gait timing and rhythmicity of patients with de novo Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurosci 2006;24:1815-1820.
118. Verghese J, Buschke H, Viola L, et al. Validity of divided attention tasks in predicting falls in older individuals: a preliminary study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002;50:1572-1576.
119. Lundin-Olsson L, Nyberg L, Gustafson Y. Attention, frailty, and falls: the effect of a manual task on basic mobility. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998;46:758-761.
120. Williams LM. An integrative neuroscience model of "significance" processing. J Integr Neurosci 2006;5:1-47.
121. Huitema RB, Brouwer WH, Hof AL, Dekker R, Mulder T, Postema K. Walking trajectory in neglect patients. Gait Posture 2006;23:200-205.
122. Chapman GJ, Hollands MA. Evidence that older adult fallers prioritise the planning of future stepping actions over the accurate execution of ongoing steps during complex locomotor tasks. Gait Posture 2007;26:59-67.
123. Giordani B, Persd CC. Neuropsychological influences on gait in the elderly. In: Hausdorff JM, Alexander NB, editors. Gait disorders: evaluation and management. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis; 2005. p 117-142.
124. Dwolatzky T, Whitehead V, Doniger GM, et al. Validity of a novel computerized cognitive battery for mild cognitive impairment. BMC Geriatr 2003;3:4.
125. Egerhazi A, Berecz R, Bartok E, Degrell I. Automated neuropsychological test battery (CANTAB) in mild cognitive impairment and in Alzheimer's disease. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2007;31:746-751.
126. Levaux MN, Potvin S, Sepehry AA, Sablier J, Mendrek A, Stip E. Computerized assessment of cognition in schizophrenia: promises and pitfalls of CANTAB. Eur Psychiatry 2007;22:104-115.
127. Doniger GM, Zucker DM, Schweiger A, et al. Towards practical cognitive assessment for detection of early dementia: a 30-minute computerized battery discriminates as well as longer testing. Curr Alzheimer Res 2005;2:117-124.
128. Hausdorff JM, Doniger GM, Springer S, Yogev G, Simon ES, Giladi N. A common cognitive profile in elderly fallers and in patients with Parkinson's disease: the prominence of impaired executive function and attention. Exp Aging Res 2006;32:411-429.
129. Schweiger A, Abramovitch A, Doniger GM, Simon ES. A clinical construct validity study of a novel computerized battery for the diagnosis of ADHD in young adults. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2007;29: 100-111.
130. Dubois B, Slachevsky A, Litvan I, Pillon B. The FAB: a frontal assessment battery at bedside. Neurology 2000;55:1621-1626.
131. Royall DR, Mahurin RK, Gray KF. Bedside assessment of executive cognitive impairment: the executive interview. J Am Geriatr Soc 1992;40:1221-1226.
132. Royall DR, Cordes JA, Polk M. CLOX: an executive clock drawing task. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;64:588-594.
133. Witt K, Daniels C, Daniel V, Schmitt-Eliassen J, Volkmann J, Deuschl G. Patients with Parkinson's disease learn to control complex systems-an indication for intact implicit cognitive skill learning. Neuropsychologia 2006;44:2445-2451.
134. Behrman AL, Cauraugh JH, Light KE. Practice as an intervention to improve speeded motor performance and motor learning in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Sci 2000;174:127-136.
135. Kelly SW, Jahanshahi M, Dirnberger G. Learning of ambiguous versus hybrid sequences by patients with Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia 2004;42:1350-1357.
136. Kramer AF, Iarish JL. Aging and dual task performance. In: Rogers WA, Fisk AD, Walker N, editors. Aging and skilled performance. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1996. p 83-112.
137. Bherer L, Kramer AF, Peterson MS, Colcombe S, Erickson K, Becic E. Testing the limits of cognitive plasticity in older adults: application to attentional control. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2006;123: 261-278.
138. Erickson KI, Colcombe SJ, Wadhwa R, et al. Training-induced functional activation changes in dual-task processing: an FMRI study. Cereb Cortex 2007;17:192-204.
139. Pellecchia GL. Dual-task training reduces impact of cognitive task on postural sway. J Mot Behav 2005;37:239-246.
140. Dault MC, Frank JS. Does practice modify the relationship between postural control and the execution of a secondary task in young and older individuals? Gerontology 2004;50:157-164.
141. Silsupadol P, Sin KC, Shumway-Cook A, Woollacott MH. Training of balance under single- and dual-task conditions in older adults with balance impairment. Phys Ther 2006;86:269-281.
142. Sammer G, Reuter I, Hullmann K, Kaps M, Vaitl D. Training of executive functions in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Sci 2006; 248:115-119.
143. Jobe JB, Smith DM, Ball K, et al. Active: a cognitive intervention trial to promote independence in older adults. Control Clin Trials 2001;22:453-479.
144. Smith J, Siegert RJ, McDowall J, Abernethy D. Preserved implicit learning on both the serial reaction time task and artificial grammar in patients with Parkinson's disease. Brain Cogn 2001; 45:378-391.
145. Willis SL, Tennstedt SL, Marsiske M, et al. Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older adults. JAMA 2006;296:2805-2814.
146. Auriel E, Hausdorff JM, Herman T, Simon ES, Giladi N. Effects of methylphenidate on cognitive function and gait in patients with Parkinson's disease: a pilot study. Clin Neuropharmacol 2006; 29:15-17.
147. Devos D, Krystkowiak P, Clement F, et al. Improvement of gait by chronic, high doses of methylphenidate, in patients with advanced Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2007; 78:470-475.
148. Ben-Itzhak R, Hausdorff JM, Simon E, Giladi N. Methylphenidate improves cognition and reduces fall risk in elderly people with increased fall risk: single dose, placebo controlled, doubleblind study. Neurology 2007;68:A14.
149. Casey BJ, Tottenham N, Fossella J. Clinical, imaging, lesion, and genetic approaches toward a model of cognitive control. Dev Psychobiol 2002;40:237-254.
150. Nieoullon A. Dopamine and the regulation of cognition and attention. Prog Neurobiol 2002;67:53-83.
151. Marquis S, Moore MM, Howieson DB, et al. Independent predictors of cognitive decline in healthy elderly persons. Arch Neurol 2002;59:601-606.
152. Verghese J, Lipton RB, Hall CB, Kuslansky G, Katz MJ, Buschke H. Abnormality of gait as a predictor of non-Alzheimer's dementia. N Engl J Med 2002;347:1761-1768.
153. Waite LM, Grayson DA, Piguet O, Creasey H, Bennett HP, Broe GA. Gait slowing as a predictor of incident dementia: 6-year longitudinal data from the Sydney older persons study. J Neurol Sci 2005;229-230:89-93.
154. Verghese J, Wang C, Holtzer R, Lipton R, Xue X. Quantitative gait dysfunction and risk of cognitive decline and dementia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2007;78:929-935.
155. Abbott RD, White LR, Ross GW, Masaki KH, Curb JD, Petrovitch H. Walking and dementia in physically capable elderly men. JAMA 2004;292:1447-1453.
156. Weuve J, Kang JH, Manson JE, Breteler MM, Ware JH, Grodstein F. Physical activity, including walking, and cognitive function in older women. JAMA 2004;292:1454-1461.
157. van Gelder BM, Tijhuis MA, Kalmijn S, Giarnpaoli S, Nissinen A, Kromhout D. Physical activity in relation to cognitive decline in elderly men: the FINE study. Neurology 2004;63: 2316-2321.
158. Yaffe K, Barnes D, Nevitt M, Lui LY, Covinsky K. A prospective study of physical activity and cognitive decline in elderly women: women who walk. Arch Intern Med 2001;161:1703-1708.