The energetic costs of load-carrying and the evolution of bipedalism

Journal of Human Evolution

Volumn 54, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 675-683

  Watson, J C ^a   Payne, R C ^b   Chamberlain, A T ^c   Jones, R K ^d   Sellers, W I ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

^b ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY OF SALFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Bipedalism; Energetic cost; Evolution; Load carrying; Locomotion

Indexed keywords

BIPEDALISM; HUMAN EVOLUTION; HYPOTHESIS TESTING; LOCOMOTION; OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; WALKING;

MAMMALIA;

EID: 43049087048     PISSN: 00472484     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.10.004     Document Type: Article

References (63)

1. D. Abe K. Yanagawa S. Niihata Effects of load carriage, load position, and walking speed on energy cost of walking Appl. Ergon. 35 2004 329
2. Z. Alemseged F. Spoor W.H. Kimbel R. Bobe D. Geraads D. Reed J.G. Wynn A juvenile early hominin skeleton from Dikika, Ethiopia Nature 443 2006 296 301
3. J. Altmann A. Samuels Costs of maternal care: infant-carrying in baboons Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 29 1992 391 398
4. G.J. Bastien B. Schepens P.A. Willems N.C. Heglund Energetics of load carrying in Nepalese porters Science 308 2005 1755
5. G.J. Bastien P.A. Willems B. Schepens N.C. Heglund Effect of load and speed on the energetic cost of human walking Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 94 2005 76 83
6. Y. Bhambhani R. Maikala Gender differences during treadmill walking with graded loads: biomechanical and physiological comparisons Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 81 2000 71 83
7. J. Bobet R.W. Norman Effects of load placement on back muscle activity in load carriage Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 53 1984 71
8. B. Coen S. Gietzen T. Meyer W. Kindermann Influence of a portable spirometer on performance diagnostic parameters in long-distance runners Int. J. Sports Med. 20 Suppl. 1999 26
9. T.M. Cook D.A. Neumann The effect of load placement on the EMG activity of the low back muscles during load carrying by men and women Ergonomics 30 1987 1413 1423
10. C.B. Cooke M.J. McDonagh A.M. Nevill C.T. Davies Effects of load on oxygen intake in trained boys and men during treadmill running J. Appl. Physiol. 71 1991 1237 1244
11. A. Cymerman K.B. Pandolf A.J. Young J.T. Maher Energy expenditure during load carriage at high altitude J. Appl. Physiol. 51 1981 14 18
12. Dziados, J.E., Andrew, I., Damokosh, M.S., Mello, R.P., Vogel, J.A., Farmer Jr., K.L., 1987. Physiological Determinants of Load Bearing Capacity. US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine Technical Report T19/87, Natick, MA.
13. T. Garland Jr. P.E. Midford A.R. Ives An introduction to phylogenetically based statistical methods with a new method for confidence intervals on ancestral values Am. Zool. 39 1999 374 388
14. R.F. Goldman P.F. Iampietro Energy cost of load carriage J. Appl. Physiol. 17 1962 675 676
15. S.J. Gould R.C. Lewontin The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 205 1979 581 598
16. T.M. Griffin T.J. Roberts R. Kram Metabolic cost of generating muscular force in human walking: insights from load-carrying and speed experiments J. Appl. Physiol. 95 2003 172 183
17. N.C. Heglund P.A. Willems M. Penta G.A. Cavagna Energy-saving gait mechanics with head-supported loads Nature 375 1995 52
18. A. Heini Y. Schutz E. Diaz A.M. Prentice R.G. Whitehead E. Jequier Free-living energy expenditure measured by two independent techniques in pregnant and nonpregnant Gambian women Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 261 1991 E9 E17
19. G. Hewes Food transport and the origin of hominid bipedalism Am. Anthropol. 63 1961 687 710
20. M.P. Hoff R.D. Nadler T.L. Maple Maternal transport and infant motor development in a captive group of lowland gorillas Primates 24 1983 77 85
21. M. Holewijn Physiological strain due to load carrying Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 61 1990 237 245
22. E.F.P. Jelliffe Recent trends in infant carrying J. Trop. Pediatr. Environ. Child Health 21 1975 93 108
23. E. Jequier K. Acheson Y. Schutz Assessment of energy expenditure and fuel utilization in man Annu. Rev. Nutr. 7 1987 187 208
24. G. Keren Y. Epstein A. Magazanik E. Sohar The energy cost of walking and running with and without a backpack load Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 46 1981 317 324
25. J. Kirk D.A. Schneider Physiological and perceptual responses to load-carrying in female subjects using internal and external frame backpacks Ergonomics 35 1992 445 455
26. J.J. Knapik W. Harper H.P. Crowell K. Leiter B. Mull Standard and alternative methods of stretcher carriage: performance, human factors, and cardiorespiratory responses Ergonomics 43 2000 639 652
27. H.G. Knuttgen K. Emerson Physiological response to pregnancy at rest and during exercise J. Appl. Physiol. 36 1974 549 553
28. P.A. Kramer The costs of human locomotion: maternal investment in child transport Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 107 1998 71 85
29. M. Lawrence J. Singh F. Lawrence R.G. Whitehead The energy cost of common daily activities in African women: increased expenditure in pregnancy? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 42 1985 753 763
30. P.R. Lawrence R.J. Stibbards The energy costs of walking, carrying and pulling loads on flat surfaces by Brahman cattle and swamp buffalo Anim. Prod. 50 1990 29 40
31. S.J. Legg Comparison of different methods of load carriage Ergonomics 28 1985 197 212
32. W.R. Leonard M.L. Robertson Locomotor economy and the origin of bipedality: reply to Steudel-Numbers Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 116 2001 174 176
33. C.O. Lovejoy The origin of man Science 211 1981 341 350
34. A.R. Lind G.W. McNicol Cardiovascular responses to holding and carrying weights by hand and by shoulder harness J. Appl. Physiol. 25 1968 261 267
35. G.M.O. Maloiy N.C. Heglund L.M. Prager G.A. Cavagna C.R. Taylor Energetic cost of carrying loads: have African women discovered an economic way? Nature 319 1986 668
36. R.L. Marsh H.T. Ellerby H.T. Henry J. Rubenson The energetic costs of trunk and distal-limb loading during walking and running in guinea fowl Numida meleagris . I. Organismal metabolism and biomechanics J. Exp. Biol. 209 2006 2050 2063
37. C.P. McGowan H.A. Duarte J.B. Main A.A. Biewener Effects of load carrying on metabolic cost and hindlimb muscle dynamics in guinea fowl ( Numida meleagris ) J. Appl. Physiol. 101 2006 1060 1069
38. T. Meyer J.P. Welter J. Scharhag W. Kindermann Maximal oxygen uptake during field running does not exceed that measured during treadmill exercise Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 88 2003 387
39. A. Nagano B.R. Umberger M.W. Marzke K.G.M. Gerritsen Neuromusculoskeletal computer modeling and simulation of upright, straight-legged, bipedal locomotion of Australopithecus afarensis (A.L. 288-1) Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 126 2005 2 13
40. K.B. Pandolf B. Givoni R.F. Goldman Predicting energy expenditure with loads while standing or walking very slowly J. Appl. Physiol. 43 1977 577 581
41. C. Panter-Brick The energy cost of common tasks in rural Nepal: levels of energy expenditure compatible with sustained physical activity Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 64 1992 477
42. R.A. Pearson J.T. Dijkman R.C. Krecek P. Wright Effect of density and weight of load on the energy cost of carrying loads by donkeys and ponies Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 30 1998 67
43. M.R. Pierrynowsky R.W. Norman D.A. Winter Metabolic measures to ascertain the optimal load to be carried by man Ergonomics 24 1981 393 399
44. H. Pontzer Effective limb length and the scaling of locomotor cost in terrestrial animals J. Exp. Biol. 210 2007 1752 1761
45. P.M. Quesada L.J. Mengelkoch R.C. Hale S.R. Simon Biomechanical and metabolic effects of varying backpack loading on simulated marching Ergonomics 43 2000 293 309
46. B.G. Richmond D.R. Begun D.S. Strait Origin of human bipedalism: the knuckle-walking hypothesis revisited Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 116 2001 70 105
47. R.J. Robertson C.J. Caspersen T.G. Allison G.S. Skrinar R.A. Abbott K.F. Metz Differentiated perceptions of exertion and energy cost of young women while carrying loads Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 49 1982 69
48. C. Ross Park or ride? Evolution of infant carrying in primates Int. J. Primatol. 22 2001 749 771
49. K. Schmidt-Nielsen Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment 1983 Cambridge University Press Cambridge
50. C. Schradin G. Anzenberger Costs of infant carrying in common marmosets, Callithrix jacchus : an experimental analysis Anim. Behav. 62 2001 289 295
51. W.I. Sellers G.M. Cain W. Wang R.H. Crompton Stride lengths, speed and energy costs in walking of Australopithecus afarensis : using evolutionary robotics to predict locomotion of early human ancestors J. R. Soc. Interface 2 2005 431 441
52. M.D. Sockol D.A. Raichlen H. Pontzer Chimpanzee locomotor energetics and the origin of human bipedalism Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 2007 12265 12269
53. R.G. Soule R.F. Goldman Energy cost of loads carried on the head, hands and feet J. Appl. Physiol. 27 1969 687 690
54. K.L. Steudel-Numbers Role of locomotor economy in the origin of bipedal posture and gait Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 116 2001 171 173
55. K.L. Steudel-Numbers The energetic cost of locomotion: humans and primates compared to generalised endotherms J. Hum. Evol. 44 2003 255 262
56. K. Stuempfle D. Drury A. Wilson Effect of load position on physiological and perceptual responses during load carriage with an internal frame backpack Ergonomics 47 2004 784
57. C.R. Taylor N.C. Heglund T.A. McMahon T.R. Looney Energetic cost of generating muscular force during running: a comparison of large and small animals J. Exp. Biol. 86 1980 9 18
58. C.R. Taylor N.C. Heglund G.M.O. Maloiy Energetics and mechanics of terrestrial locomotion. I. Metabolic energy consumption as a function of speed and body size in birds and mammals J. Exp. Biol. 97 1982 1 21
59. J.M. van Raaij C.M. Schonk S.H. Vermaat-Miedema M.E. Peek J.G. Hautvast Energy cost of walking at a fixed pace and self-paced before, during, and after pregnancy Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51 1990 158 161
60. E.N. Videan W.C. McGrew Bipedality in chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes ) and bonobo ( Pan paniscus ): testing hypotheses on the evolution of bipedalism Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 118 2002 184 190
61. C.M. Wall-Scheffler K. Geiger K.L. Steudel-Numbers Infant carrying: the role of increased locomotory costs in early tool development Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 133 2007 841 846
62. P. Webb J.F. Annis S.J. Troutman Jr. Energy balance in man measured by direct and indirect calorimetry Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 33 1980 1287 1298
63. S.J. Wickler D.F. Hoyt E.A. Cogger K.M. Hall Effect of load on preferred speed and cost of transport J. Appl. Physiol. 90 2001 1548 1551