The shifting laws on the use of force and the trivialization of the un collective security system: The need to reconstitute it

Netherlands Yearbook of International Law

Volumn 34, Issue , 2003, Pages 55-88

  Tsagourias, Nicholas ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 42949174776     PISSN: 01676768     EISSN: 15740951     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0167676800001434     Document Type: Article

References (122)

1. ‘Symposium: The Impact on International Law of a Decade of Measures Against Iraq’, 13 EJIL (2002) pp.l et seq.
2. Keesings Record of World Events (1998) pp. 42697-42700 (hereinafter referred to as Keesings).
3. H. Thirlway, ‘The Law and Procedure of the International court of Justice 1960-1989’, 67 BYIL (1996) p. 1, at p. 29
4. Keesings (2002) pp. 45114-45117
5. S.D. Murphy, ‘Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law’, 97 AJIL (2003) p. 419, at pp. 419-432.
6. Keesings (2003) at p. 45218
7. B. Simma, ed., The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary, 2nd edn. (Oxford, Oxford University Press 2002) pp. 701 et seq.
8. R. Russell and J.A. Muther, A History of the United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States 1940-1945 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1958) pp. 99 et seq.
9. L.M. Goodrich, The United Nations in a Changing World, (New York, Columbia Press 1974) p. 21
10. T.M Franck, The Power of Legitimacy Among Nations’, (Oxford, Oxford University Press 1990) pp. 175-182.
11. M. Herdegen, ‘The “Constitutionalisation” of the UN Security System’, 27 Vanderbilt J Trans. L (1994) p. 135, at p. 154.
12. R. Degni-Segui, ‘Article 24, paragraph 1 et 2’, in J.P. Cot and A. Pellet, eds., La Charte des Nations Unies (Paris, Economica 1985) p. 447, at p. 457
13. K. Herndl, ‘Reflections on the Role, Functions and Procedures of the Security Council of the United Nations’, 206 Hague Recueil (1987) p. 289
14. D.D. Caron, ‘The Legitimacy of the Collective Authority of the Security Council’, 87 AJIL (1993) p. 552.
15. O. Russbach, ONU contre ONU: le droit international confisqué, (Paris, éditions La Découverte 1994).
16. N. Blokker, ‘Is Authorization Authorized? Powers and Practice of the UN Security Council to Authorize the Use of Force by ‘Coalitions of the Able and Willing”, 11 EJIL (2000) p. 541
17. J. Lobel and M. Ratner, ‘Bypassing the Security Council: Ambiguous Authorisations to Use Force, Cease-fires and the Iraqi Inspection Regime’, 93 AJIL (1999) p. 124.
18. W H. Taft IV, T.F. Buchwald, ‘Preemption, Iraq, and International Law’, 97 AJIL (2003) p. 557 et seq.
19. ‘Statement by the Attorney General’, 97 AJIL (2003) n. 2
20. R. Wedgwood, ‘The Fall of Saddam Hussein: Security Council Mandates and Preemptive Self-Defence’, 97 AJIL (2003) p. 576, at pp. 578-582
21. J. Yoo, ‘International Law and the War in Iraq’, 97 AJIL (2003) p. 663, at pp. 567-571
22. R. Wedgwood, ‘The Enforcement of Security Council Resolution 687: The Threat of Force Against Iraq’s Weapons of Mass Destruction’, 92 AJIL (1998) p. 724.
23. D. Sarooshi, The United Nations and the Development of Collective Security (Oxford, Oxford University Press 1999) p. 13
24. ‘Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations’, ICJ Rep. (1949) p. 174, at p. 182.
25. M. Rama-Montaldo, ‘International Legal Personality and Implied Powers of International Organisations’, BYIL (1970) p. 111, at pp. 129-131
26. B. Sloan, ‘The United Nations Charter as a Constitution’, 1 Pace YBIL (1961), p. 61.
27. P C. Szasz, ‘Centralised and Decentralised Law Enforcement: The Security Council and the General Assembly Acting Under Chapters VII and VIII’, in J. Delbrück, Allocation of Law Enforcement Authority in the International System, (Berlin, Duncker & Humblot 1995) p. 17, at p. 30
28. K. Skubiszewski, ‘Implied Powers of International Organisations’, in Y. Dinstein, ed., International Law in Times of Perplexity: Essays in Honour of Shabtai Rosenne, (Dordrecht, M. Nijhoff 1989) p. 855
29. G. Arangio-Ruiz, ‘The “Federal Analogy” and the UN Charter Interpretation: A Critical Issue’, 8 EJIL (1997) p. 1, at pp. 16-17.
30. ‘Certain Expenses of the United Nations’, ICJ Rep. (1962) p. 150, at p. 167
31. L.M. Goodrich, E. Hambro and A.P. Simons, Charter of the United Nations: Commentary and PCIJ Series B, Nos. 2 and 3, p. 23.
32. ‘Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa on Namibia (South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970)’, ICJ Rep. (1971) p. 2, at p. 52, para. 110
33. ‘Dissenting Opinion of Judge Spender in Certain Expenses of the United Nations’, ICJ Rep. (1962) p. 150, at p. 197
34. M. Koskenniemi, ‘The Police in the Temple: Order, Justice and the UN: a dialectical view’, 6 EJIL (1995) p. 325, at p. 327
35. M. Bothe, ‘Les limites des pouvoirs du Conseil de securité’, in R.-J. Dupuy, ed, The Development of the Role of the Security Council (Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff 1993) p. 67, at p. 73.
36. H. Kelsen, The United Nations: A Critical Analysis of its Fundamental Problems, (New York, Stevens & Sons 1951) p. 294
37. V. Golland-Debbas, ‘Security Council Enforcement Action and Issues of State Responsibility’, 43 ICLQ (1994) p. 55.
38. ICJ Rep. (1947/48) p. 57, at p. 64
39. BYIL (1995) p. 727
40. Keesings (1998) at p. 42-163.
41. Keesings (1998) at p. 42697
42. M. Torrelli, ‘Le nouveau défi iraqien à la communauté internationale: la dialectique des volontés’, 102 RGDIP (1998) p. 435.
43. J. Quigley, ‘The “Privatisation” of Security Council Enforcement Action: A Threat to Multilaterism’, 17 Michigan JIL (1996) p. 249.
44. O. Corten and F. Dubuisson, ‘L’hypothèse d’une règle émergente fondant une intervention militaire sur une “autorisation implicite” du conseil de sécurité’, RGDIP (2000) p. 873.
45. D.D. Caron, ‘The Legitimacy of the Collective Authority of the Security Council’, 87 AJIL. (1993) p. 552
46. J. Lobel and M. Ratner, ‘Bypassing the Security Council: Ambiguous Authorisations to Use Force, Cease-fires and the Iraqi Inspection Regime’, 93 AJIL (1999) p. 124, at pp. 133-134.
47. ‘Case Concerning the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project’, ICJ Rep. (1997) p. 53, para.75
48. Sir Hersch Lauterpacht in ‘Admissibility of Hearings of Petitioners by the Committee on South West Africa’, ICJ Rep. (1956) p. 46
49. ‘Case Concerning the Gabcikovo- Nagymaros Project’, ICJ Rep. (1997) p. 53, para 76.
50. L. Meeker, ‘Defensive Quarantine and the Law’, 57 AJIL (1963) p. 515, at pp. 520-523
51. M. Akehurst, ‘Enforcement Action by Regional Agencies, with special reference to OAS’, BYIL (1967) p. 175, at p. 217.
52. South West Africa cases (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), ICJ Rep. (1966) p. 4, at p. 29, para 33
53. ‘Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa on Namibia (South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970)’, ICJ Rep. (1971) p. 2, at p. 55, para. 120.
54. ‘Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations’, ICJ Rep. (1949) p. 174, at p. 179.
55. V. Gowlland-Debbas, ‘The Limits of Unilateral Enforcement of Community Objectives in the Framework of UN Peace Maintenance’, 11 EJIL (2000) p. 361.
56. Judge Fitzmaurice in ‘Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa on Namibia (South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970)’, ICJ Rep. (1971) p. 2, at p. 293
57. C. Denis, ‘La resolution 678 (1990) peut-elle legitimer les actions armies menees contre l’Iraq posterieurement a l’adoption de la resolution 687 (1991)?’, Rev. Belge de droit International (1998) p. 485, at p. 519
58. Security Council. ‘Legal Consequences for States f the Continued Presence of South Africa on Namibia (South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970)’, ICJ Rep. (1971) p. 2, at p. 53, para. 114.
59. N. Kirsch, ‘Unilateral Enforcement of the Collective Will: Kosovo, Iraq and the Security Council’, 3 Max Planck YB of UN Law (1999) p. 59, at p. 69.
60. SC Res. 95 (1951).
61. J. Stone, Legal of Armed Conflict (London, Stevens 1954), p. 644
62. D.M. Morriss, ‘From War to Peace: A Study of Cease-Fire Agreements and the Evolving Role of the United Nations’, 36 Virginia JIL (1996) p. 801, at p. 815
63. G. von Glahn, Law Among Nations, 6th edn. (New York, Macmillan 1992) p. 727
64. A. Klafkowski, ‘Les formes de cessation de l’état de guerre en droit international’, 149 Hague Recueil (1976) p. 217, at p. 265
65. H. Lauterpacht, Oppenheim’s International Law, Vol. II, ‘Disputes, War and Neutrality’, 7th edn. (London, Longmans, Green and Co. 1952) at pp. 605-606
66. R.R. Baxter, ‘Armistices and other forms of suspension of hostilities’, 149 Hague Receuil (1976) p. 353, at p. 382.
67. M. Weller, ed., Iraq and Kuwait: The Hostilities and Their Aftermath (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 1993) p. 118.
68. Y. Dinstein, War, Aggression and Self-Defence, 3rd edn. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2001) pp. 140-142.
69. A. Chayes, The Use of Force in the Persian Gulf, in L. Fisler Damrosch and D.J. Scheffer, Law and Force in the New International Order (Boulder CO, Westview Press 1991) p. 3, at p. 10.
70. M. Koskenniemi, ‘The Place of Law in Collective Security’, 17 Michigan JIL (1996) p. 455, at p. 461
71. B.H. Weston, ‘Security Council Resolution 678 and Persian Gulf Decision Making: Precarious Legitimacy’, 85 AJIL (1991) p. 516, at pp. 526-527.
72. T.M. Franck, Fairness in International Law and Institutions, (Oxford, Oxford University Press 1995) pp. 25-46.
73. O. Schachter, ‘An Overview’, in O. Schachter and C.C. Joyner, United Nations Legal Order (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 1995) Vol. 1, p. 14
74. H. Freudenschuss, ‘Unilaterism and Collective Security: Authorisations of the Use of force by the UN Security Council’, 5 EJIL (1994) p. 492, at pp. 496-499.
75. Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua, ICJ Rep. (1986) p. 14 (hereinafter referred to as Nicaragua case) paras. 194-195, 210-211, 247-249.
76. J. Crawford, International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility: Introduction, Text and Commentaries (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2002) at pp. 302-305.
77. A. Gentili, De Jure Belli Libri Tres (1588-89) in J.B. Scott, ed., The Classics of International Law (Oxford, Clarendon Press 1933) Vol. II, Bk. 1, ch. XIII, p. 59
78. H. Grotius, De Jure Belli ac Pads Libri Tres, in Scott, ed., The Classics of International Law (Washington, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 1995) Vol. II, Bk. II, ch. I, s. iii, p. 172
79. F. Suarez, De Triplici Virtute Theologica, Fide, Spe, et Charitate (1621), in J.B. Scott, ed., The Classics of International Law (Oxford, Clarendon Press 1933) ‘Disputation XIII: On Charity’, sec. 1, para. 4, pp. 802-803
80. F. de Vittoria, De Indis et de Jure Belli Relectiones, J.B. Scott, ed., The Classics of International Law (Oxford, Clarendon Press 1933)
81. R.L. Bindschedler, ‘La délimitation des compétences des Nations Unies’, 108 Hague Receuil (1963) p. 307, at p. 397
82. ‘Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996’, ICJ Rep. (1998) p. 225, para. 41.
83. H. Kelsen, Law of the United Nations (London, Stevens and Sons 1950) pp. 797-798.
84. C.H.M. Waldock, ‘The Regulation of the Use of Force by Individual States in International Law’, 81 Hague Receuil (1952) p. 451, at p. 498
85. T.D. Woolsey, Introduction to the Study of International Law, 6th edn. revised and enlarged (London, Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivingston 1888) p. 185
86. L.R. Beres, ‘Israel and Anticipatory Self-Defence’, 8 Arizona JI & Comp. I, (1991) p 89.
87. The Times (22 November 2003).
88. F. de Vitoria, Political Writings, A. Pagden and J. Lawrence, eds. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 1991) ‘On the Law of War’, 1.2, para 9
89. E. de Vattel, Le Droit Des Gens ou Principes de la Loi Naturelle, appliqués à la Conduite et aux Affaires des Nations et des Souverains, translation C.G. Fenwick (Washington, Carnegie Institution of Washington 1916) in Classics of International Law, Bk I, ch. II, para 16
90. H. Bonfils, Manuel de droit international public, 6th edn. (Paris, A Rousseau 1912) para. 242, p. 143
91. P. Fiore, Nouveau droit international public tome premier, translation from Italian by P. Pradier-Fodéré (Paris, Auguste Durand et Pedone-Lauriel 1868) p. 261
92. E. Giraud, ‘La Théorie de la légitime défense’, 49 Hague Receuil (1934) p. 687, at pp. 738-739
93. A. Rivier, Principes du Droit des Gens, Vol. 1 (Paris, A. Rousseau 1896) p. 255.
94. P. Pradier-Fodéré, Traité de Droit International Public Européen et Américain, Vol. I, (Paris, Pedone-Lauriel 1885) para. 235, p. 382
95. A. Chayes, The Cuban Missile Crisis (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1974) p. 63.
96. R.Y. Jennings, The Caroline and McLeod Cases’, 32 AJIL (1938) p. 82, at pp. 91-92
97. G. Schwarzenberger, ‘The Fundamental Principles of International Law’, 87 Hague Recuiel (1955) p. 191, at pp. 343-346.
98. J.L. Brierly, The Law of Nations, in Sir Humphrey Waldock, ed., 6th edn., (Oxford, Clarendon Press 1963) p. 404
99. A.D. Sofaer, ‘On the Necessity of Pre-emption’, 14 EJIL. (2003) p 209, p. 226.
100. N. Tsagourias, ‘Globalisation, Order and the Rule of Law’, 11 Finnish YBIL (2000) p. 247, at pp. 252-256.
101. S. D. Murphy, ‘The Security Council, Legitimacy, and the Concept of Collective Security After the Cold War’, 32 Columbia J Transn. L (1994) p. 201, at pp. 258-260.
102. H. Tigroudja, ‘Quel(s) droit(s) applicable(s) à la “guerre au terrorism’”, 48 AFDI (2002) p. 81, at pp. 86-93.
103. ‘National Security Strategy’ (2002) p. 6
104. C. Rice, ‘Promoting the National Interest’, 79 Foreign Affairs (2000) p. 45, at p. 49.
105. ‘United States: Administration Policy on Reforming Multilateral Peace Operations’, 33 ILM (1994) p. 705, at p. 802
106. B. Cronin, ‘The Paradox of Hegemony: America’s Ambiguous Relationship with the United Nations’, 7 EJIR (2001) pp. 103 et seq.
107. T.M. Franck, ‘What Happens Now? The United Nations After Iraq’, 97 AJIL (2003) p. 607, at p. 616.
108. M. Bedjaoui, The New World Order and the Security Council: Testing the Legality of its Acts, (Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 1994) p. 7
109. ‘Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa on Namibia (South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970)’, ICJ Rep. (1971) p. 2, at para. 45
110. ‘Certain Expenses of the United Nations’, ICJ Rep. (1962) p. 150, at p. 168
111. ICJ Rep. (1998) pp. 7-13
112. J. Alvarez, ‘Judging the Security Council’, 90 AJIL (1996) p. 1 et seq.
113. D.W. Bowett, ‘The Court’s Role in Relation to International organisations’, in V. Lowe and M. Fitzmaurice, eds., Fifty Years of the International court of Justice: Essays in Honour of Sir Robert Jennings (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 1996) p. 181, at pp. 190-191.
114. R. Perle, ‘Thank God for the Death of the UN: Its Abject Failure gave Us Only Anarchy, The World Needs Order’, Guardian (21 March 2003)
115. M.J. Glennon, ‘Why the Security Council Failed’, Foreign Affairs (2003) p. 16.
116. S.D. Murphy, ‘Assessing the Legality of Invading Iraq’, 92 Geo. LJ (2004) p. 14; .
117. P. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict 1500-2000 (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press 1987).
118. M. Delmas-Marty, ‘Du désordre mondial à la force du droit international’, quoting from Bachelard ‘forces imaginantes de l’esprit … elles veulent trouver dans l’être à la fois le primitif et l’éternel’, Le Monde (21 March 2003).
119. Keesings (2003) p. 45315, 45317-453178.
120. J. Habermas, Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy, translated by W. Rehg (Cambridge MA, MIT Press 1996) p. 119.
121. F.L. Kirgis Jr, ‘The Security Council’s First Fifty Years’, 89 AJIL (1995) p. 506, at p. 521.
122. M.J. Glennon, ‘The UN Security Council in a Unipolar World’, 44 Virginia JIL (2003) p. 91, at pp. 97-98.