From post-imperial to late communist nationalism: Historical change in Chinese nationalism from May Fourth to the 1990s

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 29, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 467-482

  Wu, Guoguang ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AUTHORITARIANISM; COMMUNISM; CULTURAL TRADITION; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION; IMPERIALISM; NATIONALISM; NINETEENTH CENTURY; POLITICAL POWER; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

ASIA; CHINA; EURASIA; FAR EAST;

EID: 42649129378     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: 13602241     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01436590801931454     Document Type: Article

References (95)

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2. For the development of cultural nationalism in the neolibral era, see, for instance, R Desai, 'Neoliberalism and cultural nationalism: A danse macabre', in D Plehwe, BWalpen & G Nuenhoe.er (eds), Neo-Liberal Hegemony: A Global Critique, New York: Routledge, 2006, pp 222-235.
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5. and BI Schwartz (ed), Reflections on the May Fourth Movement, Cambridge, MA: East Asian Research Center, Harvard University, 1972.
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10. Here I do not cover peasant nationalism, which arose during the anti-Japanese war and finally gave the upper hand to the Communist Party in its struggle against the Guomindang. The reason is simple: Peasant nationalism is not an intellectual phenomenon, therefore it is not comparable to May Fourth intellectual nationalism; furthermore, it has been argued that its rise in the 1930s was an aftermath of the early nationalism at the beginning of the 20th century. As we await thorough studies of the political and policy impacts of the recent resurgence of nationalism, this article will focus on the history of ideas, on the written rather than real-life reflections of Chinese nationalism, leaving an examination of the linkages between the ideas and sentiments of nationalism, on the one hand, and the possible events that manifested in nationalism, on the other, for further studies.
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37. Lu Yi (ed), Qiuji: Yige shijiexing de xuanze (Global Citizenship: A World-Wide Choice), Shanghai: Baijia chubanshe, 1989.
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39. Barme, 'To screw foreigners is patriotic', p 187.
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44. Dirlik, Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution, p 52.
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48. A remarkable exception to this observation is found in He Xin's writing. See, for example, He Xin, Wei Zhongguo shengbian: Zhi Zhongnanhai mizha (Arguing to Defend China: Secret Letters to the Chinese Leadership), Hong Kong: Mirror Books, 1997.
49. Yan Xuetong et al, Zhongguo jueqi: Guoji huanjing pinggu, pp 146-150.
50. Gui Yong, 'Zhengzhi xiandaihua: Guojia liliang de zengzhang he qianghua' (Political modernisation: The growth and strengthening of state power), Zhanglue yu guanli, 22, 1997, p 101.
51. This Chinese trend is consistent with the general development of nationalism in Asia. For a discussion of Asian nationalism in this regard, see R Desai, 'Nation against democracy: The rise of cultural nationalism in Asia', in F Quadir & J Lele (eds), Democracy and Civil Society in Asia, Vol I, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004, pp 81-110.
52. JDunn, Western Political Theory in the Face of the Future, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979
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54. Chow, The May Fourth Movement
55. and Hu Sheng, Cong yapian zhanzheng dao wusi yundong (From the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement), two vols, Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1981.
56. Xiao Gongqin, 'Jingdai Zhongguo ren dui lixian zhengzhi de wenhua wudu jiqi lishi houguo' (Cultural misinterpretations of constitutional politics and the after-effects in modern China), Zhanlue yu guanli 23, 1997, p 30.
57. AJ Nathan & T Shi, 'Left and right with Chinese characteristics: Issues and alignments in Deng Xiaoping's China', World Politics, 48, 1996, pp 522-550.
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59. Wang Xiaodong, 'Xinxi shidai de jieji, zhongzu yu guojia'.
60. For example, see Zhang Xudong, 'Cong zichan jieji shiji zhong xinglai' (Wake up, from the century of the bourgeois), Dushu, 11, 1998, pp 28-38.
61. Lin Chun, 'Buxiu de xuanyan: Jinian Gongchandang xuanyan yibai wushi zhounian' (Immortal manifesto: The 150th anniversary of the Manifesto of the Communist Party), Dushu, 10, 1998, pp 3-7.
62. Zhang Xudong, 'Cong zichan jieji shiji zhong xinglai'.
63. Chen Yangu, 'Lishi zhongjie haishi quanmian minzhu?' (The end of history, or overall democracy?), Dushu, 12, 1998, pp 3-8.
64. Wang Xi, 'Wei jianli yige zhengyi minzhu fuqiang de Zhongguo er gaige' (Reform for building a China with justice, democracy, wealth and power, Dushu, 6, 1998, pp 56-62.
65. Li Xiguang et al, Yaomohua Zhongguo de beihou (Behind the Demonization of China), Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1996.
66. Wang Xi, 'Wei jianli yige zhengyi minzhu fuqiang de Zhongguo er gaige'.
67. A third type of nationalism existed to reject these pro-status quo approaches of nationalism. For example, it tried to direct nationalism to help remake the political institutions in China, calling for a 'rational nationalism' as opposed to the current irrational political institutions that cannot produce rational legitimacy in a Weberian sense. See Wu Guoguang, 'Yi lixing minzu zhuyi kangheng weidu Zhongguo' (Rationalizing nationalism against the containment of China), Ershiyi shiji (Twenty-First Century), 34, 1996, pp 25-33
68. Wu Guoguang, 'Zailun lixing minzu zhuyi' (Rational nationalism revisited), Ershiyi shiji, 39, 1997, pp 125-131
69. Wu Guoguang & Liu Jinghua, 'Weidu Zhongguo: Shenhua yu xianshi' (Containment of China: Myth and reality), Zhanlue yu guanli, 14, 1996, pp 52-61
70. and Zheng Yongnian, Zhongguo minzu zhuyi de fuxing: Minzu guojia xiang hechu qu (The Resurgence of Chinese Nationalism: Whither the Nation-State?), Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian, 1998.
71. See also Liu Jiaming, 'Zhongguo xin minzu zhuyi de xin dongli: Cong huiying tiaozhan dao neizai zhidu de tisheng' (The new momentum for China's new nationalism: From the responses to challenges to the reconstruction of domestic institutions), Mingbao yuekan, March 1996, pp 15-17. But this type of nationalism was not prevalent in mainland China and its major publications mostly appeared through overseas Chinese outlets.
72. Liu Wenhai, 'Xinxihua yu shijie zhengzhi zhixu' (The Information Age and world political order), Zhanlue yu guanli, 12, 1995, pp 47-53.
73. Schwartz, Reflections on the May Fourth Movement, p vii.
74. M Meisner, 'Cultural iconoclasm, nationalism, and internationalism in the May Fourth Movement', in Ibid, pp 14-22.
75. GS Alitto, The Last Confucian: Liang Shu-ming and the Chinese Dilemma of Modernity, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1986.
76. For instance, see He Xin, Wei Zhongguo shengbian, 1996.
77. Zhao, 'Chinese intellectuals' quest for national greatness and nationalistic writing in the 1990s', p 730.
78. Jiang Shixue, 'Lamei, Dongya fazhan moshi de bijiao ji qishi' (Comparison of Latin American and East Asian models of development and its revelations), Zhanlue yu guanli, 12, 1995, pp 58-68.
79. For this association, see JS Coleman, 'Rights, rationality, and nationality', in A Breton et al (eds), Nationalism and Rationality, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp 1-13.
80. Chen Qingde, 'Huangquan zhidu de erchongxing yu Zhongguo minzu jingji jincheng' (Duality of the emperor system and the progress of the Chinese national economy), Zhanlue yu guanli, 28, 1998, pp 66-75.
81. Gellner, Thought and Change, pp 153-157.
82. Ibid, p 147.
83. For example, Xiao Gongqin, 'Minzu zhuyi yu Zhongguo zhuanxing shiqi de yishi xingtai'] (Nationalism and ideology in transitional China), Zhanlue yu guanli, July 1994, pp 37-45
84. Xiao Gongqin, 'Ningju xiangxinli de xin minzu zhuyi' (New nationalism that condenses centripetal force, Mingbao yuekan, March 1996, pp 18-20.
85. Xiao Gongqin, 'Ningju xiangxinli de xin minzu zhuyi', p 19.
86. For example, He Xin, Wei Zhongguo shengbian, 1996.
87. Lin Chun, 'Buxiu de xuanyan: Jinian Gongchandang xuanyan yibai wushi zhounian', p 4.
88. For this thesis, see SP Huntington, 'The clash of civilizations?', Foreign Affairs, 72 (3), 1993, pp 22-49.
89. Zheng, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China.
90. See, for example, Wang Hui & Yu Kwok-leung (eds), Qaunqiu guanxi zhong de Zhongguo chujing (China's Situation in Global Connections), Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1998.
91. For a systematic discussion of the use of the state to change the international distribution of property, see A Breton & M Breton, 'Nationalism revisited', in Breton et al, Nationalism and Rationality pp 98-115.
92. For example, Zhao, 'Chinese intellectuals' quest for national greatness and nationalistic writing in the 1990s'.
93. Jonathan Glover clari.es these two histories of nationalism in a broad and conceptual sense. See J Glover, 'Nations, identity, and conflict', in R McKim & J McMahan (eds), The Morality of Nationalism, New York: Oxford University Press, 1997, pp 11-30.
94. For conservative nationalism, see for instance, JD Lafay, 'Conservative nationalism and democratic institutions', in Breton et al, Nationalism and Rationality, pp 159-172. It should be noted, however, that Lafay discusses this concept within the political context of democratic institutions. Further, his threefold category of nationalism (expansionist, separatist and conservative) does not cover the type of nationalism in early 20th century China that was politically progressive.
95. Liang Qichao (1901), 'Guodu shidai lun' (On the Age of Transition), in Zhang Dan & Wang Renzhi (eds), Xinhai geming qian shinian jian zhenglun xuan (Selections of Political Commentaries in the Decade prior to the 1911 Revolution), Vol 3, Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 1978, pp 3-7.