The Holocaust in the eyes of Homo sovieticus: A survey based on Northeastern Belorussia and Northwestern Russia

Holocaust and Genocide Studies

Volumn 13, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 355-382

  Romanovsky, Daniel ^a  

^a Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism

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EID: 42549084164     PISSN: 87566583     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/hgs/13.3.355     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. A copy of the collection resides in the Yad Vashem Archives in Jerusalem, where the interviews are numbered from 03/4596 to 03/4740. We cite this numeration. Unfortunately, not all of the interviews were tape-recorded, and most of the records were not preserved because of the exorbitant prices for tapes in the USSR at that time (the interviewers used the same cassettes multiple times). The group, headed by A. Frenkel, is now continuing its activities in St. Petersburg
2. The interviews were not highly structured: they required considerable improvisation, and we sought to minimize the role of the interviewer. The approach was that "the witness is always right," be he Jewish or non-Jewish, a valiant survivor or an antisemitic peasant. We had no collaborators (to the best of our knowledge) among our sample. There was no formal questionnaire with which to approach all potential informants. The question with which interviewers usually started was the request to relate the informant's personal story under the Nazi occupation (if he was a Jewish survivor), or to relate what happened to the Jews of the given vicinity (if he or she was not Jewish). The following questions flowed from this. Interviewers tried to include questions on the evacuation of Jews (and why not all of them succeeded in fleeing the advancing German army); on the ghetto period; arid on the mass murders. Usually Jews and non-Jews focused on different things in their narratives, so subsequent questions to Jewish and Gentile informants might vary. The most interesting narratives were provided by those who were fifteen to nineteen years old at the time; thus our best informants were sixty to sixty-five at the time their accounts were collected. Almost none of the Jewish survivors (and none at all of those mentioned in this article) returned to their birthplaces after the war; most settled in some big city (most often Leningrad (St. Petersburg), but also in Minsk, Vitebsk, and other cities). Most (but not all) got a higher education after the war. Many of the non-Jews had not changed their place of residence, and were still to be found in the mid-1980s in the same places they had inhabited under the occupation; not all remained peasants or unskilled workers though, many having ended up in the more educated strata of provincial society
3. There appears to be no significant scholarship on perception of the Holocaust among the Soviet people, either Jewish or not. Sylvia Rothchild summarized interviews with 176 Soviet Jewish immigrants to the USA conducted between 1978 and 1980 by the William Wiener Oral History Library (A Special Legacy: An Oral History of Soviet Jewish Emigres in the United States. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985)
4. However, only a small portion of those respondents witnessed the Holocaust and recollections of World War II take up only thirteen of the book's 324 pages. These recollections include the evacuation, the local population's eagerness to greet the Germans, and manifestations of antisemitism on their part during the occupation. Despite the interest these hold for us, these recollections reflect the outlook of people who found themselves at odds with the Soviet system, left the country, and internalized the mythologies of their new homeland. The essay of David Gai, "Desiatyi krug: Zhizn', bor'ba i gibel' Minskogo getto," Znamia 12 (1988), pp. 46-86, is also worth mentioning
5. however, most of Gai's informants were people well known due to the memoirs of Hersh Smolar (Gai interviewed people who appear in Smolar's book): The Minsk Ghetto: Soviet-Jewish Partisans Against the Nazis (New York: Holocaust Library, 1989). Major organizations engaged in oral history in the CIS such as the "Memorial" and "Narodnyi arkhiv," have not yet devoted systematic attention to the Holocaust
6. Of recent publications by or about Gentile rescuers, Leonid Koval's Kniga spaseniia (Jurmala, Latvia: Gol'fstrim, 1993) stands out
7. There was an official viewpoint. See Lukasz Hirszowicz, "The Holocaust in the Soviet Mirror," East European Jewish Affairs 22:1 (1992), pp. 39-50
8. For a description of the area and the military situation see Ralph Mavrogordato and Earl Ziemke, "The Polotsk Lowland" John A. Armstrong, ed., Soviet Partisans in World War II (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), pp. 518-56
9. For more detailed accounts of the fate of the Jews in the area under discussion see the author's "Soviet Jews under the Nazi Occupation in Northeastern Belorussia and Western Russia" in Zvi Gitelman, ed., Bitter Legacy: Confronting the Holocaust in the USSR (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), pp. 230-52
10. and Christian Gerlach, "Die Einsatzgruppe B 1941/42" in P. Klein, ed., Die Einsatzgruppen in der besetzten Sowjetunion 1941/42 (Berlin: Hentrich, 1998), pp. 58-60. The author thanks Dr. Martin Dean of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum for calling his attention to the latter source
11. Regretfully, the Soviet mythology of the Great Patriotic War has not received much scholarly attention. The monograph by Matthew P. Gallagher, The Soviet History of World War II: Myths, Memories, and Realities (New York: Praeger, 1963; repr. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1976) covers only the early stage of the myth, deals mainly with its purely military aspects, and leaves out the official version of events in the occupied areas
12. Nina Tumarkin's more recent The Living and the Dead: The Rise and the Fall of the Cult of World War II in Russia (New York: Basic Books, 1994) offers much information but deals not so much with the myth of the war as the cult itself
13. The former director of the museum of local history in Opochka (Pskov region), N. I., not himself an eyewitness, devoted five pages out of the nineteen in his essay on the occupation of the town (deposited in the museum) to the annihilation of its tiny Jewish community. A. K., the former chief editor of a local paper in Usviaty, also devoted one chapter out of the five in his "diary" (compiled after the war) to the fate of the Jews: Yad Vashem Archives (YVA), 03/4635
14. E.g., Ales Adamovich, Khatyn; The Punitive Squads: The Joy of the Knife; or, The Hyperboreans and How They Live (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1988)
15. YVA, 03/4685, Senno
16. E.g., YVA, 03/4614, B. E. from Ianovichi, Jewish
17. YVA, 03/4622, S. N. from Nevel, Jewish
18. YVA, 03/4735, T. N. from Klimovichi, non-Jewish, 25 years old in 1941
19. YVA, 03/4647, F. K. from Ilino
20. YVA, 03/4676, Y. G from Beshenkovichi
21. 03/4677, R. G. from Beshenkovichi; all Jewish
22. YVA, 03/4603 and 03/4604, A. K. and Z. from Gorodok, both non-Jewish
23. YVA, 03/4623, 03/4624, 03/4625, respectively E. K., O. G., and V. S. from Nevel, all non-Jewish
24. YVA 03/4655, V. B. from Sebezh, non-Jewish
25. YVA 03/4669, L. S. from Shklov, Jewish
26. YVA, 03/4611
27. On the motif of compelling candidates to join the auxiliary police see YVA, 03/4639, E. G. from Usviaty
28. and YVA, 03/4651, E. I. from Pustoshka
29. YVA, 03/4690, 03/4692, 03/4693, 03/4694, respectively Z. S., S. Sh., A. P., and R. T. from Chashniki
30. YVA, 03/4596, M. B. from Sirotino, Jewish, not a witness of the occupation
31. YVA, 03/4597
32. YVA, 03/4625, V. S. from Nevel, non-Jewish
33. YVA, 03/4710, N. G. from Ushachi, non-Jewish
34. YVA, 03/4614, B. E. from Ianovichi, Jewish
35. YVA, 03/4716, F. G. from Kublichi, Jewish, a former partisan
36. The only indirect mention of this identification made by a non-Jewish informant may be found in R. Sh.'s account: "On the morning of the day of the great shooting of Jews in Beshenkovichi [the Germans] gathered all the townsmen who had carts with horses. . . . The town commandant came out and spoke in Russian, although with some lisping. He said, 'You are liberated from the Jewish yoke, you are free people now,' something like that." YVA, 03/4678
37. YVA, 03/4622, S. N. from Nevel
38. YVA, 03/4605, nine years old in 1941
39. YVA, 03/4654, V. B
40. YVA, 03/4685, G. S. from Senno
41. and 03/4711, E. F. from Ushachi
42. YVA, 03/4654, V. B. from Sebezh
43. 03/4639, E. G. from Usviaty
44. and 03/4635, A. K. from Usviaty
45. YVA, 03/4625, V. S. from Nevel, sixteen years old in 1941
46. YVA, 03/4694
47. Of later Soviet writings Adamovich's "The Punitive Squads" may be mentioned as only one example
48. YVA, 03/4683
49. YVA, 03/4708
50. YVA, 03/4609, a conversation with a group of Belorussian eyewitnesses
51. YVA, 03/4679, G. Sh. from Beshenkovichi
52. others state that only poor Jews evacuated, while the rich could not bring themselves to abandon their belongings: YVA, 03/4609, a group, Iezerishche
53. 03/4611, M. T. from Ianovichi
54. and 03/4683, N. K., 03/4684, A. V., and 03/4688, V. K., all from Senno
55. YVA, 03/4609
56. YVA, 03/4624, O. G. from Nevel
57. YVA, 03/4712, E. V. from Ushachi
58. YVA, 03/4693
59. YVA, 03/4604, from Gorodok
60. and 03/4611, from Ianovichi
61. 03/4717, M. K. from Kublichi
62. YVA, 03/4688, V. K. from Senno
63. 03/4612, O. M. from Ianovichi
64. YVA, 03/4695
65. Another witness, L. R. from the village of Ostrovki, Pskov region, contrasts his own valiant behavior with the cowardice of his parents, who perished there in 1942, denigrating in fact his father's honor: YVA, 03/4656
66. YVA, 03/4692
67. YVA, 03/4647
68. See also YVA, 03/4718, O. N. from Kolyshki: the witness narrates matter-of-factly that her family did not evacuate after the town was recaptured by the Soviets in February 1942, as other Jews did, despite the full awareness that the Germans would return
69. YVA, 03/4602
70. a similar motif may be found in YVA, 03/4683, N. K. from Senno
71. YVA, 03/4678
72. YVA, 03/4684
73. Samuel P. and Pearl M. Oliner, The Altruistic Personality: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe (New York: The Free Press, and London: Collier-Macmillan, 1988), pp. 153-54
74. YVA, 03/4597, G. S. from Sirotino
75. 03/4614, B. E. from Ianovichi
76. 03/4694, R. T from Chashniki
77. 03/4724, M. T. from Minsk
78. YVA, 03/4605; I. D. was only nine years old at the time
79. 03/4605, I. D. from Gorodok
80. 03/4614, B. E., and 03/4615, Y. N., both from Ianovichi
81. YVA, 03/4605
82. Respectively YVA, 03/4615 and 03/4611. The execution of 149 Jewish men in Ianovichi on 15 (19?) August 1941 was carried out by the Teilkommando headed by Schneider, subordinate to Filbert's Einsatzkommando 9 of Einsatzgruppe SD "B." A Teilkommando was usually equal to a platoon; it must have been greater than "three to four cars," but less than sixteen. See YVA, TR-10/388
83. YVA, 03/4702, I. P., and 03/4703, V. B., from Chashniki
84. YVA, 03/4623, E. K., and 03/4624, O. G., from Nevel
85. YVA, 03/4603, A. K. from Gorodok
86. and YVA, 03/4679, G. Sh from Beshenkovichi
87. YVA, 03/4697, L. P. from Chashniki, of mixed parentage but identifying as Belorussian
88. YVA, 03/4603, A. K from Gorodok
89. YVA, 03/4713, M. K. from Ushachi
90. 03/4700, S. A. from Chashniki
91. E.g., YVA, 03/4603, A. K. from Gorodok
92. 03/4624, O. G. from Nevel
93. YVA, 03/4712
94. Numerous cases of assistance by non-Jews appear in Jewish testimonies, viz.: a warning about forced labor camps in YVA, 03/4638; warnings about mass shootings in 03/4617, 03/4618, and 03/4720; showing Jews the safest way to the partisans in 03/4693; accompanying Jews to the countryside in 03/4659; providing them with food ("for nothing") in 03/4659, 03/4692, 03/4716, and 03/4719. Other cases include: YVA, 03/4721; 03/4690; 03/4615; 03/4617; 03/4618; 03/4614; 03/4677; 03/4734
95. YVA, 03/4635, A. K. from Usviaty
96. 03/4708, A. Sh. from Ushachi
97. 03/4702, I. P., and 03/4603, V. B., from Chashniki. Remarkably, not only relatives and former co-workers (who might have been expected) are mentioned as sources of assistance, but also complete strangers
98. YVA, 03/4676
99. YVA, 03/4598, E. L. from Sirotino
100. 03/4615, Y. N. from Ianovichi
101. 03/4659, D. R. from Gorki
102. 03/4677, R. G. from Beshenkovichi
103. 03/4721, S. M. from Vitebsk (ca. thirty years old at the time)
104. YVA, 03/4691, F. Kh. from Chashniki
105. YVA, 03/4722.I. D. from Gorodok (YVA 03/4605) spoke of a Belorussian who, upon watching construction of the ghetto fence, said "The sooner [they kill the Jews] the better!" Instances of Gentiles denouncing Jews who had hidden during the mass shootings appear in YVA, 03/4693, A. P. from Chashniki
106. and 03/4718, O. N. from Kolyshki
107. YVA, 03/4660, M. A. from Gorki
108. and 03/4697, M. P. from Chashniki
109. Respectively YVA, 03/4597 and 03/4676; a similar declaration appears in 03/4605, I. D. from Gorodok
110. YVA, 03/4603
111. YVA, 03/4615, Y. N. from Ianovichi
112. and 03/4691, F. Kh from Chashniki
113. Respectively YVA, 03/4674 and 03/4691
114. YVA, 03/4676, Y. G., and 03/4677, R. G., from Beshenkovichi
115. 03/4694, R. T. from Chashniki; and others
116. YVA, 03/4719, S. G. from Kolyshki
117. YVA, 03/4614
118. YVA, 03/4691
119. YVA, 03/4596
120. YVA, 03/4614; the assertion made by B. E. is a commonplace in the historical literature on the Nazi occupation of the USSR
121. YVA, 03/4723
122. A similar motif appears in YVA, 03/4674, E. E. from Krugloe
123. YVA, 03/4690, Z. S.
124. 03/4692, S. Sh.
125. 03/4693, A. P.
126. 03/4694, R. T
127. YVA, 03/4617, Z. K. from Ianovichi
128. 03/4697, M. P. from Chashniki
129. E.g., YVA, 03/4691, F. Kh.
130. and 03/4694, R. T. from Chashniki
131. 03/4718, O. N. from Kolyshki
132. and 03/4721, S. M. from Vitebsk
133. YVA, 03/4636; characteristically, the informant Z. Z. was not an eyewitness (he was in the army); his story, even if based on a real episode, is most probably "folklorized."
134. YVA, 03/4720; S. S. was around forty years old in 1941
135. Respectively YVA, 03/4615, 03/4617, and 03/4674. Z. K. was approximately thirty years old in 1941
136. 03/4674, E. E. from Krugloe
137. and 03/4693, A. P. from Chashniki
138. See also 03/4612, M. F. from Ianovichi
139. YVA, 03/4612, O. M.
140. and 03/4713, E. A., from Ianovichi
141. YVA, 03/4703, V. B. from Chashniki
142. 03/4710, N. G. from Ushachi
143. and 03/4717, name unknown, from Kublichi
144. YVA, 03/4698, I. B. from Chashniki
145. and 03/4612, M. F. from Ianovichi
146. YVA, 03/4710
147. For a similar story see YVA, 03/4706, N. R. from Lukoml
148. YVA, 03/4669, L. S. from Shklov
149. YVA, 03/4659, D. R. from Gorki
150. YVA, 03/4611, M. T from Ianovichi
151. 03/4683, N. K., and 03/4689, V. K., from Senno
152. YVA, 03/4611, M. T. from Ianovichi
153. YVA, 03/4642, E. R. from Toropets
154. YVA, 03/4709, V. V.
155. and 03/4710, N. G. from Ushachi
156. YVA, 03/4709
157. YVA, 03/4654, [name unknown] from Sebezh
158. 03/470S, A. Sh., and 03/4709, V. V., from Ushachi
159. and 03/4717, S. K. from Kublichi
160. YVA, 03/4622
161. YVA, 03/4638