The Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (AP6): A distraction to the Kyoto process or a viable alternative?

Asia Pacific Journal of Environmental Law

Volumn 10, Issue 3-4, 2007, Pages 183-209

  Lawrence, Peter ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA   (Australia)

Author keywords

Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate; Climate change; Kyoto protocol; Technology transfer

Indexed keywords

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL; ARTICLE; ASIA; CHINA; CLIMATE CHANGE; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT; GOVERNMENT REGULATION; GREENHOUSE EFFECT; GREENHOUSE GAS; INDIA; INDUSTRIALIZATION; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; JAPAN; PACIFIC ISLANDS; PATENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLIC HEALTH; TECHNOLOGY; UNITED STATES;

EID: 42449133358     PISSN: 13852140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. International Energy Agency (IEA) World Energy Outlook 2006, Summary and Conclusions www.worldenergyoutlook.org/summaries2006/ English.pdf(22 February 2007) at 5.
2. Ibid, at 2.
3. Ibid, at 5.
4. Ibid, at 1.
5. Ibid, at 1-2.
6. Text available at United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change www.unfccc.int/ (25 April 2006).
7. Ibid.
8. T.C. Haller and P.R. Shukla "Development and Climate: Engaging Developing Countries" Pew Centre on Global Climate Change www.pewclimate.org/ (25 April 2006) at 1-2.
9. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (ABARE), Technological Development and Economic Growth ABARE Research Report 06.1, prepared for the Inaugural Ministerial Meeting of the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate, Sydney, 11-13 January 2006 (ABARE, Canberra: 2006) 5.
10. The AP6 Charter and other basic documents relating to the partnership can be found at www.asiapacificpartnership.org (8 May 2006). See also www.dfat.gov.au/environment/climate.ap6/charter.html (1 March 2006).
11. AP6 Charter, note 10, Third preambular paragraph.
12. A. Kellow "Submission to the Joint Standing Committee on Treaties" (Commonwealth of Australia, Official Committee, Hansard, 31 Match 2006) www.aph.gov.au/hansard/joint/committee/J9132.pdf (23 March 2007) at TR 49.
13. AP6 locks world in to four degrees global warming" WWF-Australia Press Release www.wwf.org.au/news/ap6-locks-world- (1 March 2006).
14. The White House, President George W. Bush "Fact Sheet: a New International Climate Change Framework" May 31 2007 www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/05/print/20070531-13.html (11 June 2007) at 1.
15. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Climate Change 2001, Third Assessment Report, Working Group 1: The Scientific Basis, Summary for Policymakers www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/008.htm (22 July 2007) at 4.
16. "Climate Change Science, Questions and Answers on Climate Change Science" Australian Greenhouse Office, Australian Government (2005) www.greenhouse.gov.au/science.qa/pubs/science-qa.pdf (25 April 2006) at 4.
17. IPCC, note 15 at 4.
18. IPCC "Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Summary for Policymakers" WMO, UNEP 5 February 2007 www.ipcc.ch/SPM2feb07.pdf (22 February 2007).
19. Ibid, at 2-7.
20. See also helpful commentary on this report at Real Climate, Climate science from climate scientists "The IPCC Fourth Assessment SPM" 2 Feb 2007 www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2007/02/ the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-su (24 February 2007).
21. IPCC, note 18 at 12.
22. These projections are "broadly consistent with the span quoted in the TAR (1.4 to 5.8 degrees C)": IPCC, note 18 at 13.
23. B.L. Preston and R.N Jones "Climate Change Impacts on Australia and the Benefits of Early Action to Reduce Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions" available at www.csiro.au/resources/pfbg.html (15 March 2007) at 5.
24. Ibid, at 5.
25. IPCC, note 18 at 13.
26. IPCC, note 18 at 17. The Stern Review points out that on the assumption of a business as usual scenario, ie without sharp reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, there is "at least a 77% chance... of a global average temperature rise exceeding 2°C": Sir Nicholas Stern The Economics of Climate Change (HM Treasury, UK: 30 October 2006) www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/Independent_Reviews/ stern_review_economics_climate_change/sternreview_index.cfm (12 March 2007) at iii. To put this in perspective, an additional 1°C increase in temperature would cause extensive damage to Australia's Great Barrier Reef: Preston and Jones, note 22 at 5.
27. The European Union's Environment Council has called for emissions reductions by developed countries of 60-80% by 2050: European Council (2005) Provisional Minutes of European Council, Brussels, Belgium, March 10, in Preston & Jones, note 22 at 17.
28. The UK Government on 13 March 2007 proposed a legally binding GHG reduction targets including a 60% reduction to be achieved by 2050: see draft UK Climate Bill www.defra.gov.uk/news./latest/2007/ climate-0313.html (15 March 2007).
29. In Australia, the New South Wales Greenhouse Advisory Panel has recommended Australia reduce its emissions 60% by 2050: New South Wales Greenhouse Advisory Panel Submission on the Energy Directions Green Paper (2004). The Australian Labor Party in 2007 adopted as part of its policy platform support for a 60% reduction by 2050: See Kevin Rudd, Leader of the Opposition, Annual Fraser Lecture, Belconnen Labor Club, Canberra, 30 May 2007 www.alp.org.au/media/0507/speloo300.php (6 June 2007).
30. Preston and Jones, note 22 at 18. Most scenarios assume no significant reductions by developing countries before 2010: Preston and Jones, note 22 at 18. Engaging developing countries in reduction efforts remains an enormous challenge, as discussed below.
31. See useful discussion in Preston and Jones, note 22 at 18.
32. Stern Review, note 25.
33. Stern Review, note 25.
34. Stern Review, note 25 at ii.
35. The Allens Consulting Group "Deep Cuts in Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Economic, Social and Environmental Impacts for Australia" Report to the Business Roundtable on Climate Change, March 2006 www.allenconsult.com.au/resouces/GHG2050%20FINALpdf (25 April 2006) at vi.
36. Preston and Jones, note 22 at 6. The term 'singularities' refers to abrupt changes in the climate system with potentially catastrophic consequences which are difficult to predict (Preston and Jones, note 22 at 30).
37. Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration of the UN Conference on Environment and Development ("Rio Declaration") 1992 www.unep.org/ Documents.multilingual/Default.asp (23 March 2007).
38. UNFCCC, note 6, Art. 3.3, http://unfccc.int/essential_background/ convention/background/items/1355.php (6 June 2007).
39. Philippe Sands Principles of International Environmental Law (2nd edn, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 2003) 266-279.
40. Jacqueline Peel The Precautionary Principle in Practice (Federation Press, Sydney: 2005) points out the impossibility of attaining "full scientific certainty" noting that "no scientific conclusion based on empirical data, no matter how widely accepted, is foolproof" (at 36), and argues for a broader understanding of "scientific uncertainty" which takes into account the inescapable "value" element (at 34-55).
41. Lowy Institute Poll on public opinion and foreign policy 2006, referred to by Judy Friedlander "Out and about beats fear" Sydney Morning Herald 15 May 2007 at 12.
42. R.Johns Sandeman "A Critique of Present Australian Energy Policy" International Journal of Environmental Studies (2006) Vol 63 no 6, 719-729.
43. See also John Quiggin "The Greenhouse Mafia" The Australian Financial Review 1 June 2007 at 4-5.
44. Liz Minchin and Farrah Tomazin "Howard undermined on climate" The Age April 25 2007 www.theage.com.au/articles/2007/04/24/ 1177180651382.html (26 June 2007).
45. UNFCCC website, note 6.
46. UNFCCC, note 6, Art. 4(2).
47. See P. Sands, note 36 at 364-365.
48. For text of Kyoto Protocol, see http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/ kpeng.pdf (23 March 2007).
49. Kyoto Protocol http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php (23 March 2007).
50. Kyoto Protocol, note 43, Art. 3(1).
51. Kyoto Protocol, note 43, Art. 3(1).
52. UNFCCC website, note 6.
53. B. Buchner and J. Lehmann "Equity Principles to Enhance the Effectiveness of Climate Policy: an Economic and Legal Perspective" in M. Bothe and E. Rehbinde Climate Change Policy (Eleven International Publishing, Utrecht: 2005) 45-72 at 46.
54. UNFCCC, note 6, Art. 3(1).
55. See "Letter from President George Bush to Senator Chuck Hagel" 13 March 2001 www.lavoisier.com.au/papers/articles/Bushletter.html (26 June 2007).
56. See also "Australia rejects Kyoto pact" 5 June 2002 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/2026446.stm (26 June 2007)
57. and Australia, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade "Climate Change" www.dfat.gov.au/environment/climate/ (26 June 2007).
58. "EU leaders agree climate change targets" Times on Line March 9 2007 www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/ article1492647.ece (26 June 2007).
59. "EU climate change policies" Euractiv.com 22 June 2007 www.euractiv.com/en/sustainability/eu-climate-change-policies/ article-117453 (26 June 2007).
60. Canada's Fourth National Report on Climate Change http://unfccc.int/ resource/docs/natc/cannc4.pdf (26 June 2007).
61. Japan's Progress Report submitted 6 February 2006 http://unfccc.int/ resource/docs/dpr/jpn1.pdf (26 June 2007).
62. See also Toni Johnson "G8's gradual move toward post-Kyoto climate change policy" www.cfr.org (27 June 2007).
63. See Decision -/CMP.1 http://unfcc.int/meetings/cop.11/items (25 April 2006). Decisions adopted by COP11/MOP1 Montreal UN Climate Change Conference, 28 November-9 December 2005, Montreal. Annex I Parties comprise the industrialised countries and Eastern European economies in transition.
64. Ibid, Para 2.
65. Decision 7/CMP.2 "Review of the Kyoto Protocol pursuant to its Article 9" FCCC/KP/CMP/2006/10/Add.1 at 32 http://unfccc.int/ resource/docs/2006/cmp2/eng/10a01.pdf#page=32 (27 June 2007).
66. http://cdm.unfccc.int/Statistics/index.html (27 June 2007).
67. UNFCCC website, note 6.
68. World Bank State and Trends of the Carbon Market 2007 www.carbonfinance.org/docs/Carhon_Trends_2007_FINAL (14 July 2007) at 3.
69. Beverley Dawkin "The Montreal Climate Change Negotiations - What Next for Climate Policy?" www.chathamhouse.org.uk (24 April 2006).
70. Cedric Philibert "International Energy Technology Collaboration and Climate Change Mitigation" OECD paper COM/ENV/EPOC/IEA/SLT (2004) 1 at 9.
71. Ibid, at 9.
72. More broadly this field also includes "adoption" as well as "mitigation" and both sources and sinks. See Gill Wilkins Technology Transfer for Renewable Energy, Overcoming Barriers in Developing Countries (Earthscan, London: 2002) at 126.
73. Philibert, note 62 at 9. The ABARE Report which underpins the AP6 comes to a similar conclusion. "Both technology 'push', (for example, research and development policies) and 'pull', (for example emissions trading) will be required in the long-term. However, it will be important to ensure that sufficient funding and support policies are provided to reinvigorate energy research in both the public and private sectors and the necessary technologies to substantially reduce emissions actually exist and are capable of deployment before technology 'pull' polices are adopted": ABARE, note 9 at 4.
74. UNFCCC, note 6, Arts. 4(5) and 11(1).
75. Art. 19(c) provides that Kyoto Parties: "Cooperate in the promotion of effective modalities for the development, application and diffusion of, and take all practicable steps to promote, facilitate and finance, as appropriate, the transfer of, or access to, environmentally sound technologies, know-how, practices and processes pertinent to climate change, in particular to developing countries, including the formulation of policies and programmes for the effective transfer of environmentally sound technologies that are publicly owned or in the public domain and the creation of an enabling environment for the private sector, to promote and enhance the transfer of, and access to, environmentally sound technologies" www.unfccc.int-KYOTO (28 June 2007).
76. Timothy Forsyth "Flexible Mechanisms of Climate Technology Transfer" (1999) Vol 8 (Sept) Journal of Environment & Development 238-257 at 246.
77. Ibid, at 239.
78. Ibid, at 243.
79. See Peter Lawrence "Technology Transfer Funds and the Law: Recent Amendments to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer" (1992) 4 Journal of Environmental Law 15.
80. Global Environment Facility (GEF) www.gefweb.org/projects/Focal_Areas/ climate/climate.html (16 June 2006).
81. Global Environment Facility (GEF) Status Report on the Climate Funds, 19 May 2006 GEF/C.28/4/Rev.1 http://thegef.org/documents/Co (11 July 2007) at 4.
82. See UN document FCCC/SBSTA/200/L.9 on UNFCCC website, note 6.
83. See Decision 5/CP12 in UN document FCCC/CP/2006/5/Add1 on UNFCCC website, note 6.
84. Wilkins, note 64 at 113.
85. Forsyth, note 68 at 239, citing World Bank figures, quoted from T. Forsyth (ed.) Positive Measures for Technology Transfer under the Climate Change Convention (Royal Institute of International Affairs, London: 1998) at 25.
86. Heller and Shukla, note 8 at 5.
87. Ibid, at 5-6.
88. Kyoto Protocol, note 43, Art. 12.
89. World Bank, note 60 and associated text.
90. Australia, Prime Ministerial Task Group on Emissions Trading - Final Report www.pmc.gov.au/publications/emissions/index.cfm at 66-70.
91. www.emissionstrading.nsw.gov.au/ (19 July 2007).
92. Point Carbon 2007, CDM DJI Monitor www.pointcarbon.com/ article21980-195.html?articleID=21980&categoryID=195 (7 July 2007).
93. ABN AMRO Bank N.V., Pacific Hydro, Australian Business Council for Sustainable Energy, Phillips Fox Show me the money (May 2006) at 22.
94. The Fifteenth Asia-Pacific Seminar on Climate Change 11-15 September 2005, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan, Chairperson's Summary www.ap-net.org/ seminar/h01.html (5 May 2006) at 3.
95. Heller and Shukla, note 8 at 4.
96. cdm.unfccc.int/ (19 July 2007).
97. www.roaring40s.com.au (19 July 2007).
98. Joint Press Release "Australia Joins New Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate" 28 July 2005 at www.ap6.gov.au (27 June 2007).
99. AP6 Charter, note 10, Fourth preambular paragraph.
100. Press Conference, Vientiane, Laos, 28 July 2005, quoted in R. Pritchard "The AP 6 Charter" Oil, Gas and Energy Law Intelligence March 2006 at 2.
101. Ibid, at 2.
102. Mr Liu Yongxing, Chinese Ambassador to Laos, Vientienne, Laos 28 July 2005, quoted in Pritchard, note 92.
103. Press conference, Sydney, 12 January 2006, quoted in Pritchard, note 92.
104. Condoleeza Rice, US Secretary of State, press conference, Washington DC, 9 February 2006, www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2006/60858.htm (26 April 2006).
105. AP6 Charter, note 10, para 2.1.3.
106. AP6 Charter, note 10, para 4.
107. See AP6 website at www.asiapacificpartnership.org 'Workplan'.
108. Ibid.
109. Energy Efficiency: A Worldwide Review (World Energy Council, London: 2004).
110. Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate Partnership for Action 2006 www.dfat.gov.au/environment/climate/ap6 (23 February 2007) at 8-9.
111. Ibid, at 10-11.
112. Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate, Partnership for Action, 200, www.asiapacificpartnership.org (23 February 2007).
113. AP6 Charter, note 10, para 5.1.
114. Condoleeza Rice, note 96. For Australia see www.ap6.gov.au (15 November 2007).
115. World Bank, Sate and Trends of the Carbon Market 2007 www.carbonfinance.org/docs/Carbon_Trends_2007_FINAL (14 July 2007) at 3.
116. China's aggressive push to develop renewable energy shows that a narrow North-South analysis is out of date. See China's Climate Change National Action Plan launched on 4 June 2007 which includes a target of 20% reduction of energy consumption per unit GDP by 2010 and a target of raising the proportion of renewable energy in the primary energy supply sector to 10% by 2010 www.GOV.cn (11 June 2007) at 16.
117. Debra Justus and Cedric Philibert International Energy Technology Collaboration and Climate Change Mitigation, Synthesis Report (International Energy Agency, November 2005) (COM/ENV.EPOC/IEA/ SLT(2005)11) at 6.
118. R. Martin R and R. Vaitilingam "Climate Change: Economic Sense and Non-sense of Carbon Mitigating Policies" http://cep.lse.ac.uk/ briefings/pa.climate_change.pdf (28 Feb 2007) at 6.
119. Stern Report, note 25 at 352-5.
120. Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate Partnership for Action 2006 www.dfat.gov.au/environment/climate/ap6 (23 Feb 2007).
121. R.K. Pachauri "Climate change and technology transfer" http://environment.yale.edu/documents/downloads/o-u/Pachauri.pdf at 185.
122. Gordon J. MacDonald "Technology Transfer: The Climate Change Challenge" (1992) 1:1 Journal of Environment and Development at 13.
123. Ibid.
124. Wilkins, note 64 at 126.
125. AP6 Charter, note 10, Art. 6.1.
126. Berta Gomez and Peggy B. Hu Intellectual Property Enforcement High on U.S.-China Agenda http://usinfo.state.gov/eap/Archive/2005/May/ 19-694355.html (11 July 2007).
127. Ronald Steenblick "Liberalisation of Trade in Renewable Energy Products and Associated Goods: Charcoal, Solar Photovoltaic Systems and Wind Pumps and Turbines" OECD Trade and Environment Working Paper No. 200507 COM/ENV/TD (2005) 23/FINAL, 9 Dec 2005 at 4-6.
128. The Australian Financial Review 1 November 2006 at 17.
129. See also Press Release, Business Council of Australia "New BCA Approach to Tackling Climate Change" which proposes that Australia encourage the development of a "pro-forms trading market within the AP6 group as a precursor to the development of a global market" www.bca.com.au/PrintMe.aspx?ContentID=100903 (5 March 2007) at 2.
130. "Japan Launches Voluntary Emissions Trading Scheme" Japan for Sustainability www.greenbiz.com/news/news_third.cfm?NewsID=28866 (2 March 2007).
131. Australia, Prime Ministerial Task Group on Emissions Trading - Final Report, note 82 at 72-75.
132. Peter Lawrence "Submission to Prime Minister's Task Group on Emissions Trading" www.pmc.gov.au (11 July 2007).
133. ABARE, note 9 at 3.
134. An OECD study draws a similar conclusion: see Philibert, note 62. Michael Grubb has also argued that a combination of pricing regulation to ensure market "pull" as well as a suite of policies that "span the innovation chain" is required: see Michael Grubb "Climate, energy and innovation: moving from theory to practice" www.econ.cam.ac.uk/fac (11 June 2007) at 15.
135. ABARE, note 9 at 4.
136. Charlotte Streck "The World Summit on Sustainable Development: Partnerships as New Tools in Environmental Governance" (2004) 13 Yearbook, of International Environmental Law 63-95 at 66.
137. The White House, President George W. Bush "Fact Sheet: a New International Climate Change Framework" May 31 2007 www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/05/print/20070531-13.html (11 June 2007) at 1.
138. See also G8 Chair's summary Heiligendamm, 8 June 2007 www.g-8.de/Content/ DE/Artikel/G-8Gipfel/Anlage (11 June 2007).
139. Prime Minister of Australia media release "APEC Economic Leaders Meeting - Climate Change" 31 March 2007 www.pm.gov.au/media/Release (19 July 2007). Space precludes a discussion of the possible role of APEC in these issues.
140. Charles Arthur "That Sinking Feeling" The Independent (UK) 6 January 2004 http://environment.independent.co.uk/ articles83484.ece (28 June 2007) at 2.