Dynamic collapse of the upper respiratory tract: A review

Equine Veterinary Education

Volumn 20, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 212-224

  Franklin, S H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Endoscopy; Exercise; Horse; Respiratory sounds; Upper airway obstruction

Indexed keywords

EQUIDAE;

EID: 42449132148     PISSN: 09577734     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2746/095777308X290382     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. Ahern, T.J. (1999) Pharyngeal dysfunction during exercise. J. equine vet. Sci. 19, 226-231.
2. Allen, K.J., Lane, J.G., Woodford, N.S. and Franklin, S.H. (2008) Severe collapse of the rostral soft palate as a source of abnormal respiratory noise in six horses and ponies. Equine vet J. 39, 562-566.
3. Anderson, B., Kannegieter, N. and Goulden, B. (1997) Endoscopic observations on laryngeal symmetry and movements in young racing horses. N. Z. vet. J. 45, 188-192.
4. Archer, R.M., Lindsay, W.A. and Duncan, I.D. (1991) A comparison of techniques to enhance the evaluation of equine laryngeal function. Equine vet. J. 23, 104-107.
5. Attenburrow, D.P. (1978) The development of a radio-stethoscope for use in the horse at rest and during exercise. Equine vet. J. 10, 14-17.
6. Baker, G.J. (1983) Laryngeal asynchrony in the horse: Definition and significance. In: Equine Exercise Physiology, Eds: D.H. Snow, S.G.B. Persson and R.J. Rose, Granta Editions, Cambridge. pp 46-50.
7. Barakzai, S.Z., Es, C., Milne, E.M. and Dixon, P. (2007) Ventroaxial luxation of the apex of the corniculate process of the arytenoid cartilage in resting horses during induced swallowing or nasal occlusion. Vet. Surg. 36, 210-213.
8. Blea, J.A. and Arthur, R.M. (2003) How to evaluate and treat ulceration of the glosso-epiglottic fold (subepiglottic area) in the standing horse. Proc. Am. Ass. equine Practnrs. 49, 295-300.
9. Boyle, A.G., Martin, B.B. Jr., Davidson, E.J., Durando, M.M. and Birks, E.K. (2006) Dynamic pharyngeal collapse in racehorses. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 36, 546-550.
10. Brink, P. (2005). The effect of a respiratory stimulator, lobeline chloride, on position of the soft palate in normal horses. Equine vet Educ. 17, 166-168.
11. Brown, J.A., Hinchcliffe, K.W., Jackson, M.A., Dredge, A.F., O'Callaghan, P.A., McCaffey, J.P., Slocombe, R.F. and Clarke, A.F. (2005) Prevalence of pharyngeal and laryngeal abnormalities in Thoroughbreds racing in Australia, and their association with performance. Equine vet. J. 37, 397-401.
12. Cahill, J.I. and Goulden, B.E. (1987) The pathogenesis of equine laryngeal hemiplegia - a review. N. Z. vet. J. 35, 82-90.
13. Carr, E.A., Spier, S.J., Kortz, G.D. and Hoffman, E.P. (1996) Laryngeal and pharyngeal dysfunction in horses homozygous for hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis. J. Am. vet. med. Ass. 209, 798-803.
14. Cook, W.R. (1965) The diagnosis of respiratory unsoundness in the horse. Vet. Rec. 77, 516-528.
15. Cook, W.R. (1988) Diagnosis and grading of hereditary recurrent laryngeal neuropathy in the horse. J. equine Sci. 8, 432-455.
16. Cook, W.R. and Thalhammer, G. (1991) Electrodiagnostlc test for the objective grading of recurrent laryngeal neuropathy in the horse. Proc. Am. Ass. equine Practnrs. 37, 275-296.
17. Curtis, R.A., Hahn, C.N., Evans, D.L, Williams, T. and Begg, L. (2005) Thoracolaryngeal reflex latencies in thoroughbred horses with recurrent laryngeal neuropathy. Vet. J. 170, 67-76.
18. Dart, A.J. (2006) Vocal fold collapse after laryngeal tie-forward correction of dorsal displacement of the soft palate. Vet. Surg. 35, 584-585.
19. Dart, A.J., Dowling, B.A. and Smith, C.L. (2005) Upper airway dysfunction associated with collapse of the apex of the corniculate process of the left arytenoid cartilage during exercise in 15 horses. Vet. Surg. 34, 543-547.
20. Dart, A.J., Dowling, B.A. Hodgson, D.R. and Rose, R.J. (2001) Evaluation of high-speed treadmill videoendoscopy for diagnosis of upper respiratory tract dysfunction in horses. Aust. vet J. 79, 109-112.
21. Davidson, E.J., Martin, B.B. Jr. and Parente, E.J. (2007) Use of successive dynamic videoendoscopic evaluations to identify progression of recurrent laryngeal neuropathy in 3 horses. J. Am. vet. med. Ass. 230, 555-558.
22. Davidson, E.J., Martin, B.B., Parente, E.J. and Birks, E.K. (2002) Dynamic evaluation of sports horses with poor performance: 80 cases (1992-2000). Proceedings of the 2002 Conference on Equine Sports Medicine: The Elite Dressage and Three-day Event Horse, Ed: A. Lindner, CESMAS, Jülich. pp 133-136.
23. Derksen, F.J., Holcombe, S.J., Hartmann, W., Robinson, N.E. and Stick, J.A. (2001) Spectrum analysis of respiratory sounds in exercising horses with experimentally induced laryngeal hemiplegia or dorsal displacement of the soft palate. Am. J. vet. Res. 62, 659-664.
24. Dixon, P.M., Railyon, D.I. and McGorum, B.C. (1993) Temporary bilateral laryngeal paralysis in a horse associated with general anaesthesia and post anaesthetic myositis. Vet. Rec. 132, 29-32.
25. Dixon, P.M., McGorum, B.C., Railton, D.I., Hawe, C., Tremaine, W.H., Pickles, K. and McCann, J. (2001) Laryngeal paralysis: a study of 375 cases in a mixed breed population of horses. Equine vet. J. 33, 452-458.
26. Dixon, P.M., McGorum, B.C., Railton, D.I., Hawe, C., Tremaine, W.H., Pickles, K. and McCann, J. (2002) Clinical and endoscopic evidence of progression in 152 cases of equine recurrent laryngeal neuropathy (RLN). Equine vet. J. 34, 29-34.
27. Ducharme, N.G. (2006) Pharynx. In: Equine Surgery, 3rd edn., Eds: J.A. Auer and J.A. Stick, W.B. Saunders, St Louis. pp 544-565.
28. Ducharme, N.G., Hackett, R.P., Fubini, S.L. and Erb, H.N. (1991) The reliability of endoscopic examination in assessment of arytenoid cartilage movement in horses. Part II. Influence of side of examination, reexamination, and sedation. Vet. Surg. 20, 180-184.
29. Ducharme, N.G., Hackett, R.P., Ainsworth, D.M., Hollis, N. and Shannon, K.J. (1994) Repeatability and normal values for measurement of pharyngeal and tracheal pressures in exercising horses. Am. J. vet. Res. 55, 368-374.
30. Ducharme, N.G., Hackett, R.P., Woodie, J.B., Dykes, N., Erb, H.N., Mitchell, L.M. and Soderholm, LV (2003) Investigations into the role of the thyro-hyold muscles in the pathogenesis of dorsal displacement of the soft palate in horses. Equine vet. J. 35, 258-263.
31. Duncan, I.D. and Brook, D. (1985) Bilateral laryngeal paralysis in the horse. Equine vet. J. 17, 228-233.
32. Duncan, I.D., Baker, G.J., Heffron, C.J. and Griffiths, I.R. (1977) A correlation of the endoscopic and pathological changes in subclinical pathology of the horse's larynx. Equine vet. J. 9, 220-225.
33. Ehrlich, P.J., Seeherman, H.J., Morris, E., Jolias, C. and Cook, W.R. (1995) The effect of reversible left recurrent laryngeal neuropathy on the metabolic cost of locomotion and peak aerobic power in Thoroughbred racehorses. Vet. Surg. 24, 36-48.
34. Franklin, S. H. (2002) Studies of Dorsal Displacement of the Soft Palate in Thoroughbred Racehorses, PhD Thesis, University of Bristol.
35. Franklin S.H., Naylor, J.R.J. and Lane, J.G. (2002) Effect of dorsal displacement of the soft palate on ventilation and airflow during high-intensity exercise. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 34, 379-384.
36. Franklin, S.H., Naylor, J.R.J. and Lane, J.G. (2006) Videoendoscopic evaluation of the upper respiratory tract in 93 sport horses during exercise testing on a high-speed treadmill. Equine vet J., Suppl. 36, 540-545.
37. Franklin, S.H., Price, C. and Burn, J.F. (2004) The displaced equine soft palate as a source of abnormal respiratory noise during expiration. Equine vet. J. 36, 590-594.
38. Franklin, S.H. Usmar, S.G., Lane, J.G. Shuttleworth, J. and Burn, J.F. (2003) Spectral analysis of respiratory noise in horses with upper airway disorders. Equine vet. J. 35, 264-268.
39. Gerring, E.L. (1985) Differential diagnosis of equine respiratory noises, In Pract. 7, 109-117.
40. Goulden, B.E. (1977) Some unusual cases of abnormal respiratory noise in the horse. N. Z. vet J. 25, 389-390.
41. Goulden, B.E. and Anderson, L.J. (1981) Equine laryngeal hemiplegia, part II: some clinical observations, N. Z. vet. J. 29, 194-198.
42. Greet, T.R.C., Jeffcott, L.B., Whitwell, K.E. and Cook, W.R. (1980) The slap test for laryngeal adductory function on horses with suspected cervical spinal cord damage. Equine vet. J. 12, 127-131.
43. Gunn, H.M. (1972) Histological observations on laryngeal skeletal muscle fibres in 'normal' horses. Equine vet. J. 4, 144-148.
44. Hackett, R.P., Ducharme, N.G., Fubini, S.L. and Erb, H.N. (1991). The reliability of endoscopic examination in assessment of laryngeal function in horses. Part 1 : Development of a laryngeal grading system. Vet. Surg. 20, 174-179.
45. Hackett, R.P., Ducharme, N.G. and Mitchell, L. (1994) The role of treadmill endoscopy in diagnosis of dynamic obstruction of the upper airway. Proc. Am. Ass. equine Practnrs. 40, 83.
46. Hammer, E.J., Tulleners, E.P., Parente, E.J. and Martin, B.B. (1998) Video-endoscopic assessment of dynamic laryngeal function during exercise in horses with grade-III left laryngeal hemiparesis at rest: 26 cases (1992-1995). J. Am. vet. med. Ass. 212, 399-403.
47. Hawe, C., Dixon, P.M. and Mayhew, G. (2001) A study of electrodiagnostic technique for the evaluation of equine recurrent laryngeal neuropathy. Equine vet. J. 33, 459-465.
48. Hawkins, J.F., Tulleners, E.P., Evans, L.H. and Orslni, J.A. (1995) Alar fold resection in horses: 24 cases (1979-1992). J. Am. vet. med. Ass. 206, 1913-1916.
49. Haynes, P.F. (1983) Dorsal displacement of the soft palate and epiglottic entrapment: diagnosis, management and interrelationship, Comp. cont. Educ. 5, 379-388.
50. Heffron, C.J. and Baker, G.J. (1979) Observations on the mechanism of functional obstruction of the nasopharyngeal airway in the horse. Equine vet. J. 11, 142-147.
51. Holcombe, S.J., Derksen, F.J., Stick, J.A. and Robinson, N.E. (1997a) Effects of bilateral hypoglossal and glossopharyngeal nerve blocks on epiglottic and soft palate position in exercising horses. Am. J. vet. Res. 58, 1022-1026.
52. Holcombe, S.J., Derksen, F.J., Stick, J.A. and Robinson, N.E. (1997b) Effect of bilateral tenectomy of the tensor veli palatini muscle on soft palate function in horse. Am. J. vet. Res. 58, 317-321.
53. Holcombe, S.J., Derksen, F.J., Stick, J.A. and Robinson, N.E. (1998) Effect of bilateral blockade of the pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve on soft palate function in horses. Am. J. vet. Res. 59, 504-508.
54. Holcombe, S.J., Rodriguez, K., Lane, J. and Caron, J.P. (2006) Cricothyroid muscle function and vocal fold stability in exercising horses. Vet. Surg. 35, 495-500.
55. Holcombe, S.J., Derksen, F.J., Berney, C., Becker, A.C. and Horner, N.T. (2001) Effect of topical anaesthesia of the laryngeal mucosa on upper airway mechanics in exercising horses. Am. J. vet. Res. 62, 1706-1710.
56. Holcombe, S.J., Derksen, F.J., Stick, J.A., Robinson, N.E. and Boehler, D.A. (1996) Effect of nasal occlusion on tracheal and pharyngeal pressures in horses. Am. J. vet. Res. 57, 1258-1260.
57. Kannegieter, N.J. and Dore, M.L. (1995) Endoscopy of the upper respiratory tract during treadmill exercise: a clinical study of 100 horses. Aust. vet. J. 72, 101-107.
58. Kannegieter, N.J., Goulden, B.E. and Anderson, L.J. (1986) Right-sided laryngeal dysfunction in a horse. N. Z. vet J. 34, 66-68.
59. King, D.S., Tulleners, E., Martin, B.B., Parente, E.J. and Boston, R. (2001) Clinical experiences with axial deviation of the aryepiglottic fold in 52 racehorses. Vet. Surg. 30, 151-160.
60. Lane, J.G. (1993) Recurrent laryngeal neuropathy: current attitudes to aetiology, diagnosis and treatment. In: Proceedings of the 15th Bain-Fallon Memorial Lectures, Artarmon, Australia. pp 173-192.
61. Lane, J.G. (2001) Equine 4th branchial arch defects: A clinico-pathological review. In: Proceedings of the 2nd World Equine Airways Symposium, Edinburgh.
62. Lane, J.G. (2003) Non-RLN upper respiratory tract disorders found in a survey of 3,497 Thoroughbred yearlings. In: Proceedings of a Workshop on Equine Recurrent Laryngeal Neuropathy, Havemeyer Foundation Monograph Series No. 11. pp 49-50.
63. Lane, J.G., Bladon, B., Little, D.R.M., Naylor, J.R.J, and Franklin, S.H. (2006a) Dynamic obstructions of the equine upper respiratory tract Part 1: observations during high-speed treadmill endoscopy in 600 Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine vet J. 38, 393-399.
64. Lane, J.G., Bladon, B., Little, D.R.M., Naylor, J.R.J. and Franklin, S.H. (2006b) Dynamic obstructions of the equine upper respiratory tract. Part 2: a comparison between endoscopic findings at rest and those recorded during high-speed treadmill exercise of 600 Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine vet. J. 38, 401-408.
65. Lekeux, P. and Art, T. (1994) The respiratory system: anatomy, physiology and adaptations to exercise and training. In: The Athletic Horse: Principles and Practice of Equine Sports Medicine. Eds: D.R. Hodgson and R.J. Rose, W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia. pp 79-127.
66. Lindegaard, C., Husted, L., Ullum, H. and Fjeldborg, J. (2007) Sedation with detomidine and acepromazine influences the endoscopic evaluation of laryngeal function in horses. Equine vet. J. 39, 553-556.
67. Linford, R.L., O'Brien, T.R., Wheat, J.D. and Meagher, D.M. (1983) Radiographic assessment of epiglottic length and pharyngeal and laryngeal diameters in the Thoroughbred. Am. J. vet Res. 44, 1660-1666.
68. Lumsden, J.M., Derksen, F.J., Stick, J.A. and Robinson, N.E. (1993) Use of flow-volume loops to evaluate upper airway obstruction in exercising Standardbreds. Am. J. vet. Res. 54, 766-775.
69. Lumsden, J.M., Stick, J.A., Caron, J.J., Nickels, F.A., Brown, C.M., Godber, L.M. and Derksen, F.J. (1995) Upper airway function in performance horses: Video-endoscopy during high-speed treadmill exercise, Comp. cont. Educ. 17, 1134-1143.
70. Marlin, D.J., Roberts, C.A., Schroter, R.C. and Lekeux, P. (2000) Respiratory responses of mature horses to intravenous lobeline bolus. Equine vet. J. 32, 200-207.
71. Marlin, D. and Nankervis, K. (2002) Respiratory responses. In: Equine Exercise Physiology, Blackwell Science, Oxford. pp 94-112.
72. Martin, B.B. Jr., Reef, V.B., Parente, E.J. and Sage, A.D. (2000) Causes of poor performance of horses during training, racing, or showing: 348 cases (1992-1996). J. Am. vet. med. Ass. 216, 554-558.
73. McCann, J. (2000) Differential diagnosis of abnormal respiratory noises in the exercising horse. In Pract. 22, 370-381.
74. McCluskie, L.K., Merriam, A.G. and Franklin, S.H. (2006) A histological examination of the equine aryepiglottal folds. In: Proceedings of the 45th BEVA Congress. Equine Veterinary Journal Ltd, Newmarket. p 322.
75. McGorum, B.C., Murphy, D., Love, S. and Milne, E.M. (1999) Clinicopathological features of equine primary hepatic disease: a review of 50 cases. Vet. Rec. 145, 134-139.
76. Morris, E.A. and Seeherman, H.J. (1990) Evaluation of upper respiratory tract function during strenuous exercise in racehorses. J. Am. vet. med. Ass. 196, 431-438.
77. Morris, E.A. and Seeherman, H.J. (1991) Clinical evaluation of poor performance in the racehorse: the results of 275 evaluations. Equine vet J. 23, 169-174.
78. Negus, V.E. (1949) The Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Larynx, Ed: W. Hafner, Heinemann Ltd., London.
79. Newton-Clarke, M.J., Divers, T.J. and Valentine, B.A. (1994) Evaluation of the thoraco-laryngeal reflex ('slap test') as an indicator of laryngeal adductor myopathy in the horse. Equine vet J. 26, 355-357.
80. Norwood, G.L. (1983) Ulceration of the soft palate. Proc. Am. Ass. equine Practnrs. 29, 403-405.
81. Parente, E.J. (1997) Treadmill endoscopy. In: Equine Endoscopy, 2nd edn., Eds: C.M. Brown and J.L. Traub-Dargatz, Mosby, St Louis. p 112.
82. Parente, E.J. and Martin, B.B. (1995) Correlation between standing endoscopic examinations and those made during high-speed exercise in horses - 150 cases. Proc. Am. Ass. equine Practnrs. 41, 170.
83. Parente, E.J., Martin, B.B. and Tulleners, E.P. (1998) Epiglottic retroversion as a cause of upper airway obstruction in two horses. Equine vet. J. 30, 270-272.
84. Parente, E.J., Martin, B.B., Tulleners, E.P. and Ross, M.W. (1994) Upper respiratory dysfunctions in the horse during high-speed exercise, Proc. Am. Ass. equine Practnrs. 40, 81-82.
85. Parente, E.J., Martin, B.B., Tulleners, E.P. and Ross, M.W. (2002) Dorsal displacement of the soft palate in 92 horses during high-speed treadmill examination (1993-1998). Vet. Surg. 31, 507-512.
86. Pascoe, J.R., Ferrara, G.L., Cannon, J.H., Arthur, R.M. and Wheat, J.D. (1981) Exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage in racing Thoroughbreds: a preliminary study. Am. J. vet. Res. 42, 703-707.
87. Petsche, V.M., Derksen, F.J., Berney, C.E. and Robinson, N.E. (1995) Effect of head position on upper airway function in exercising horses. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 18, 18-22.
88. Rakestraw, P.C., Hackett, R.P., Ducharme, N.G., Neilan, G.J. and Erb, H.N. (1991) Arytenoid cartilage movement in resting and exercising horses. Vet. Surg. 20, 122-127.
89. Raphel, C.F. (1982) Endoscopic findings in the upper respiratory tract of 479 horses. J. Am. vet. med. Ass. 181, 470-473.
90. Robinson, N.E. (2004) Consensus statements on equine recurrent laryngeal neuropathy: Conclusions of the Havermeyer Workshop. Equine vet. Educ. 16, 333-336.
91. Robertson, J.T. (1991) Pharynx and larynx. In: Equine Respiratory Disorders, Ed: J. Beech, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia. pp 331-387.
92. Rundell, K.W. and Spiering, B.A. (2003) Inspiratory stridor in elite athletes. Chest 123, 468-474.
93. Seeherman, H.J., Ehrlich, P.J. and Morris, E. (1995) Physiological versus clinical consequences of left recurrent laryngeal neuropathy. Equine vet J., Suppl. 18, 7-12.
94. Sojka, J.E., Hop, W. and Pearson, D. (1996) Lead toxicosis in 2 horses: Similarity to equine degenerative lower motor neuron disease. J. vet intern. Med. 10, 420-423.
95. Strand, E. and Staempfli, H.R. (1993) Dynamic collapse of the roof of the nasopharynx as a cause of poor performance in a standardbred colt. Equine vet. J. 25, 252-254.
96. Strand, E., Hanche-Olsen, S., Grenvold, A.M.R. and Mellum, C.N. (2004) Dynamic bilateral arytenoid and vocal fold collapse associated with head flexion in 5 Norwegian coldblooded trotter racehorses. Equine vet Educ. 16, 242-254.
97. Sweeney, C.R., Maxon, A.D. and Soma, L.R. (1991) Endoscopic findings in the upper respiratory tract of 678 Thoroughbred racehorses. J. Am. vet. med. Ass. 198, 1037-1038.
98. Tan, R.H.H., Dowling, B.A. and Dart, A.J. (2005) High-speed treadmill video-endoscopic examination of the upper respiratory tract in the horse: the results of 291 clinical cases. Vet. J. 170, 243-248.
99. Tessier, C., Holcombe, S.J., Derksen, F.J., Berney, C. and Boruta, D. (2004) Effects of stylopharyngeus muscle dysfunction on the nasopharynx in exercising horses. Equine vet. J. 36, 318-323.
100. Tetens, J., Hubert, J.D., Eddy, A.L. and Moore, R.M. (2000) Dynamic tracheal collapse as a cause of exercise intolerance in a Thoroughbred. J. Am. vet. med. Ass. 216, 722-724.
101. Williams, W. (1874) Respiratory sounds. In: The Principles and Practice of Veterinary Medicine, Maclachlan and Steward, Edinburgh. pp 451-462.