Why does pneumococcus kill?

Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases

Volumn 10, Issue SUPPL. 3, 1999, Pages

  Bergeron, Yves ^a   Bergeron, Michel G ^a,b  

^a LAVAL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b LAVAL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Cytokines; Pathogenesis; Pneumococcal pneumonia

Indexed keywords

EID: 4243440832     PISSN: 11802332     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (132)

1. Defining the public health impact of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: report of a working group. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1996;45(RR-1 Suppl):1-20.
2. Simpson SQ, Singh R, Bice DE. Heat-killed pneumococci and pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides stimulate tumor necrosis factor-alpha production by murine macrophages. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1994;10:284-9.
3. Cundell D, Masure HR, Tuomanen EI. The molecular basis of pneumococcal infection: a hypothesis. Clin Infect Dis 1995;2(Suppl 3):S204-12.
4. Pallares R, Linares J, Vadillo M, et al. Resistance to penicillin and cephalosporin and mortality from severe pneumococcal pneumonia in Barcelona, Spain. N Engl J Med 1995;333:474-80.
5. Mufson MA. Streptococcus pneumoniae. In: Mandell GL, Douglas RG Jr, Bennett JE, eds. Principles and Practice of Infectious Disease, 3rd edn. New York: Churchill Livingstone Inc, 1990:1539-50.
6. Kramer MR, Rudensky B, Hadas-Halperin I, Isacsohn M, Melzer E. Pneumococcal bacteremia - no change in mortality in 30 years: analysis of 104 cases and review of the literature. Isr J Med Sci 1987;23:174-80.
7. Berman S. Epidemiology of acute respiratory infections in children of developing countries. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13(Suppl 6):S454-62.
8. Klugman KP. Pneumococcal resistance to antibiotics. Clin Microbiol Rev 1990;3:171-96.
9. Tuomanen EI, Austrian R, Masure HR. Pathogenesis of pneumococcal infection. N Engl J Med 1995;332:1280-4.
10. Simon RH, Paine R. Participation of pulmonary alveolar epithelial cells in lung inflammation. J Lab Clin Med 1995;126:108-18.
11. Weiss SJ. Tissue destruction by neutrophils. N Engl J Med 1989;320:365-76.
12. Johnston RBJ. Pathogenesis of pneumococcal pneumonia. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13(Suppl 6):S509-17.
13. Bergeron Y, Ouellet N, Deslauriers AM, Simard M, Olivier M, Bergeron MG. Cytokine kinetics and other host factors in response to pneumococcal pulmonary infection in mice. Infect Immun 1998;66:912-22.
14. Paton JC, Andrew PW, Boulnois GJ, Mitchell TJ. Molecular analysis of the pathogenicity of Streptococcus pneumoniae: the role of pneumococcal proteins. Annu Rev Microbiol 1993;47:89-115.
15. Henrichsen J. Six newly recognized types of Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Clin Microbiol 1995;33:2759-62.
16. Lee CJ, Banks SD, Li JP. Virulence, immunity, and vaccine related to Streptococcus pneumoniae. Crit Rev Microbiol 1991;18:89-114.
17. Boulnois GJ. Pneumococcal proteins and the pathogenesis of disease caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Gen Microbiol 1992;138:249-59.
18. Gray BM, Converse GM III, Dillon HC. Serotypes of Streptococcus pneumoniae causing disease. J Infect Dis 1979;140:979-83.
19. Briles DE, Crain MJ, Gray BM, Forman C, Yother J. Strong association between capsular type and virulence for mice among human isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect Immun 1992;60:111-6.
20. Wu HY, Virolainen A, Mathews B, King J, Russell MW, Briles DE. Establishment of a Streptococcus pneumoniae nasopharyngeal colonization model in adult mice. Microb Pathog 1997;23:127-37.
21. Musher DM. Infections caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae: clinical spectrum, pathogenesis, immunity, and treatment. Clin Infect Dis 1992;14:801-7.
22. Austrian R. Some aspects of the pneumococcal carrier state. J Antimicrob Chemother 1986;18(Suppl A):35-45.
23. Conley ME, Delacroix DL. Intravascular and mucosal immunoglobulin A: two separate but related systems of immune defense? Ann Intern Med 1987;106:892-9.
24. Weiser JN, Austrian R, Sreenivasan PK, Masure HR. Phase variation in pneumococcal opacity: relationship between colonial morphology and nasopharyngeal colonization. Infect Immun 1994;62:2582-9.
25. Weiser JN, Markiewicz Z, Tuomanen E, Wani JH. Relationship between phase variation in colony morphology, intrastrain variation in cell wall physiology, and nasopharyngeal colonization by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect Immun 1996;64:2240-5.
26. Cundell DR, Weiser JN, Shen J, Young A, Tuomanen EI. Relationship between colonial morphology and adherence of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect Immun 1995;63:757-61.
27. Andersson B, Beachy EH, Tomasz A, Tuomanen E, Svanborg-Eden C. A sandwich adhesin on Streptococcus pneumoniae attaching to human oropharyngeal epithelial cells in vitro. Microb Pathog 1988;4:267-78.
28. Krivan HC, Roberts DD, Ginsberg V. Many pulmonary pathogenic bacteria bind specifically to the carbohydrate sequence GalNac Beta 1-4Gal found in some glycolipids. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988;85:6157-61.
29. Cundell DR, Gerard NP, Gerard C, Idanpaan-Heikkila I, Tuomanen EI. Streptococcus pneumoniae anchor to activated human cells by the receptor for platelet-activating factor. Nature 1995;377:435-8.
30. Hakansson A, Kidd A, Wadell G, Sabharwal H, Svanborg C. Adenovirus infection enhances in vitro adherence of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect Immun 1994;62:2707-14.
31. Tuomanen EI. The biology of pneumococcal infection. Pediatr Res 1997;42:253-8.
32. Talkington DF, Brown BG, Tharpe JA, Koenig A, Russell H. Protection of mice against fatal pneumococcal challenge by immunization with pneumococcal surface adhesin A (PsaA). Microb Pathog 1996;21:17-22.
33. Watson DA, Musher DM. Interruption of capsule production in Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 3 by insertion of transposon Tn916. Infect Immun 1990;58:3135-8.
34. Robbins JB, Austrian R, Lee CJ, et al. Consideration for formulating the second-generation pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccine with emphasis on the cross-reactive types within groups. J Infect Dis 1983;148:1136-59.
35. Kelly T, Dillard JP, Yother J. Effect of genetic switching of capsular type on virulence of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect Immun 1994;62:1813-9.
36. Fine DP. Pneumococcal type-associated variability in alternate complement pathway activation. Infect Immun 1975;12:772-8.
37. Hostetter M. Serotypic variations among virulent pneumococci in deposition and degradation of covalently bound C3b: implications for phagocytosis and antibody production. J Infect Dis 1986;153:682-93.
38. Van-Dam JE, Fleer A, Snippe H. Immunogenicity and immunochemistry of Streptococcus pneumoniae capsular polysaccharides. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 1990;58:1-47.
39. Watson DA, Musher DM, Verhoef J. Pneumococcal virulence factors and host immune responses to them. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1995;14:479-90.
40. Bruyn GA, Zegers BJ, van Furth R. Mechanisms of host defense against infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis 1992;14:251-62.
41. Keller R, Fischer W, Keist R, Bassetti S. Macrophage response to bacteria: induction of marked secretory and cellular activities by lipoteichoic acids. Infect Immun 1992;60:3664-72.
42. Rubins JB, Duane PG, Charboneau D, Janoff EN. Toxicity of pneumolysin to pulmonary endothelial cells in vitro. Infect Immun 1992;60:1740-6.
43. Rubins JB, Duane PG, Clawson D, Charboneau D, Young J, Niewoehner DE. Toxicity of pneumolysin to pulmonary alveolar epithelial cells. Infect Immun 1993;61:1352-8.
44. Rubins JB, Charboneau D, Paton JC, Mitchell TJ, Andrew PW, Janoff EN. Dual function of pneumolysin in the early pathogenesis of murine pneumococcal pneumonia. J Clin Invest 1995;95:142-50.
45. Houldsworth S, Andrew PW, Mitchell TJ. Pneumolysin stimulates production of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-1 beta by human mononuclear phagocytes. Infect Immun 1994;62:1501-3.
46. Feldman C, Munro NC, Jeffery PK, et al. Pneumolysin induces the salient histologic features of pneumococcal infection in the rat lung in vivo. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1991;5:416-23.
47. Berry AM, Paton JC, Hansman D. Effect of insertional inactivation of the genes encoding pneumolysin and autolysin on the virulence of Streptococcus pneumoniae type 3. Microb Pathog 1992;12:87-93.
48. Berry AM, Alexander JE, Mitchell TJ, Andrew PW, Hansman D, Paton JC. Effect of defined point mutations in the pneumolysin gene on the virulence of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect Immun 1995;63:1969-74.
49. Lock RA, Hansman D, Paton JC. Comparative efficacy of autolysin and pneumolysin as immunogens protecting mice against infection by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Microb Pathog 1992;12:137-43.
50. Paton JC, Berry AM, Lock RA. Molecular analysis of putative pneumococcal virulence proteins. Microb Drug Resist 1997;3:1-10.
51. Wu HY, Nahm MH, Guo Y, Russell MW, Briles DE. Intranasal immunization of mice with PspA (pneumococcal surface protein A) can prevent intranasal carriage, pulmonary infection, and sepsis with Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Infect Dis 1997;175:839-46.
52. Crain MJ, Waltman WD, Turner JS, et al. Pneumococcal surface protein A (PspA) is serologically highly variable and is expressed by all clinically important capsular serotypes of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect Immun 1990;58:3293-9.
53. McDaniel LS, Yother J, Vijayakumar M, McGarry L, Guild WR, Briles DE. Use of insertional inactivation to facilitate studies of biological properties of pneumococcal surface protein A (PspA). J Exp Med 1987;165:381-94.
54. Briles DE, Yother J, McDaniel LS. Role of pneumococcal surface protein A in the virulence of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Rev Infect Dis 1988;10(Suppl 2):S372-4.
55. Waltman WD, McDaniel LS, Gray BM, Briles DE. Variation in the molecular weight of PspA (pneumococcal surface protein A) among Streptococcus pneumoniae. Microb Pathog 1990;8:61-9.
56. Lock RA, Paton JC, Hansman D. Comparative efficacy of pneumococcal neuraminidase and pneumolysin as immunogens protective against Streptococcus pneumoniae infection. Microb Pathog 1988;5:461-7.
57. Buret A, Dunkley ML, Pang G, Clancy RL, Cripps AW. Pulmonary immunity to Pseudomonas aeruginosa in intestinally immunized rats: roles of alveolar macrophages, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and interleukin-1 alpha. Infect Immun 1994;62:5335-43.
58. Czuprynski CJ, Haak-Frendscho M, Maroushek N, Brown JF. Effects of recombinant human interleukin-6 alone and in combination with recombinant interleukin-1 alpha and tumor necrosis factor alpha on antibacterial resistance in mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992;36:68-70.
59. Amura CR, Fontan PA, Sanjuan N, Sordelli DO. The effect of treatment with interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor on Pseudomonas aeruginosa lung infection in a granulocytopenic mouse model. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1994;73:261-6.
60. Takashima K, Tateda K, Matsumoto T, Iizawa Y, Nakao M, Yamaguchi K. Role of tumor necrosis factor alpha in pathogenesis of pneumococcal pneumonia in mice. Infect Immun 1997;65:257-60.
61. Van der Poll T, Keogh CV, Buurman WA, Lowry SF. Passive immunization against tumor necrosis factor-alpha impairs host defense during pneumococcal pneumonia in mice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:603-8.
62. Fahey TJ, Tracey KJ, Cerami A. Tumor necrosis factor (cachectin) and the adult respiratory distress syndrome. In: Fishman AP, ed. Update: Pulmonary Diseases and Disorders. Montreal: McGraw-Hill, 1992:175-83.
63. Dunne DW, Resnick D, Greenberg J, Krieger M, Joiner KA. The type I macrophage scavenger receptor binds to Gram-positive bacteria and recognizes lipoteichoic acid. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994;91:1863-7.
64. Coonrod JD, Varble R, Jarrells MC. Species variation in the mechanism of killing of inhaled pneumococci. J Lab Clin Med 1990;116:354-62.
65. Skerrett SJ. Host defenses against respiratory infection. In: Niederman MS, ed. The Medical Clinics of North America. Pneumonia: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis and Management. Montreal: WB Saunders Company, 1994:941-66.
66. Worthen GS, Haslett C, Rees AJ, Gumbay RS, Henson JE, Henson PM. Neutrophil-mediated pulmonary vascular injury. Synergistic effect of trace amounts of lipopolysaccharide and neutrophil stimuli on vascular permeability and neutrophil sequestration in the lung. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;136:19-28.
67. Talbot UM, Paton AW, Paton JC. Uptake of Streptococcus pneumoniae by respiratory epithelial cells. Infect Immun 1996;64:3772-7.
68. Mannes GP, Boersma WG, Baur CH, Postmus PE. Adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) due to bacteraemic pneumococcal pneumonia. Eur Respir J 1991;4:503-4.
69. Puren AJ, Feldman C, Savage N, Becker PJ, Smith C. Patterns of cytokine expression in community-acquired pneumonia. Chest 1995;107:1342-9.
70. Jacobs ER, Bone RC. Clinical indicators in sepsis and septic adult respiratory distress syndrome. Med Clin North Am 1986;70:921-32.
71. Aihara M, Nakazawa T, Dobashi K, et al. A selective pulmonary thrombosis associated with sepsis-induced disseminated intravascular coagulation. Intern Med 1997;36:97-101.
72. Briles DE, Forman C, Horowitz JC, et al. Antipneumococcal effects of C-reactive protein and monoclonal antibodies to pneumococcal cell wall and capsular antigens. Infect Immun 1989;57:1457-64.
73. Kaniuk AS, Lortan JE, Monteil MA. Specific IgG subclass antibody levels and phagocytosis of serotype 14 pneumococcus following immunization. Scand J Immunol 1992;11(Suppl):96-8.
74. Vitharsson G, Jonsdottir I, Jonsson S, Valdimarsson H. Opsonization and antibodies to capsular and cell wall polysaccharides of Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Infect Dis 1994;170:592-9.
75. Busse WW. Pathogenesis and sequelae of respiratory infections. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13(Suppl 6):S477-85.
76. Gentry MJ, Snitily MU, Preheim LC. Phagocytosis of Streptococcus pneumoniae measured in vitro and in vivo in a rat model of carbon tetrachloride-induced liver cirrhosis. J Infect Dis 1995;171:350-5.
77. Karzon DT. Pathogenesis and prevention of childhood pneumonia in developing countries: recommendations. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13(Suppl 6):S578-80.
78. Davis CC, Mellencamp MA, Preheim LC. A model of pneumococcal pneumonia in chronically intoxicated rats. J Infect Dis 1991;163:799-805.
79. Mellencamp MA, Preheim LC. Pneumococcal pneumonia in a rat model of cirrhosis: effects of cirrhosis on pulmonary defense mechanisms against Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Infect Dis 1991;163:102-8.
80. Lukacs NW, Ward PA. Inflammatory mediators, cytokines, and adhesion molecules in pulmonary inflammation and injury. Adv Immunol 1996;62:257-91.
81. Luster AD. Chemokines - chemotactic cytokines that mediate inflammation. N Engl J Med 1998;338:436-45.
82. Ulich TR, Watson LR, Yin S, et al. The intratracheal administration of endotoxin and cytokines. I. Characterization of LPS-induced IL-1 and TNF mRNA expression and the LPS-, IL-1, and TNF-induced inflammatory infiltrate. Am J Pathol 1991;138:1485-96.
83. Greenberger MJ, Streiter RM, Kunkel SL, et al. Neutralization of macrophage inflammatory protein-2 attenuates neutrophil recruitment and bacterial clearance in murine Klebsiella pneumoniae. J Infect Dis 1996;173:159-63.
84. Hebert JC, O'Reilly M, Gamelli RL. Protective effect of recombinant granulocyte colony-stimulating factor against pneumococcal infections in splenectomized mice. Arch Surg 1990;125:1075-82.
85. Hopkins H, Stull T, Von-Essen S, Robbins RA, Rennard SI. Neutrophil chemotactic factors in bacterial pneumonia. Chest 1989;95:1021-7.
86. Sugawara T, Miyamoto M, Takayama S, Kato M. Separation of neutrophils from blood in human and laboratory animals and comparison of the chemotaxis. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 1995;33:91-100.
87. Su TH, Martin WJ Jr. Pathogenesis and host response in Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Annu Rev Med 1994;45:261-72.
88. Krarup E, Vestbo J, Benfield TL, Lundgren JD. Interleukin-8 and leukotriene B4 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from HIV-infected patients with bacterial pneumonia. Respir Med 1997;91:317-21.
89. Standiford TJ, Kunkel SL, Greenberger MJ, Laichalk LL, Strieter RM. Expression and regulation of chemokines in bacterial pneumonia. J Leukoc Biol 1996;59:24-8.
90. Chollet-Martin S, Montravers P, Gibert C, et al. High levels of interleukin-8 in the blood and alveolar spaces of patients with pneumonia and adult respiratory distress syndrome. Infect Immun 1993;61:4553-9.
91. Broug-Holub E, Toews GB, van Iwaarden JF, et al. Alveolar macrophages are required for protective pulmonary defenses in murine Klebsiella pneumoniae: elimination of alveolar macrophages increases neutrophil recruitment but decreases bacterial clearance and survival. Infect Immun 1997;65:1139-46.
92. Schall TJ. The chemokines. In: Thomson AW, ed. The Cytokine Handbook, 2nd edn. San Diego: Academic Press, 1994:419-60.
93. Nelson S. Role of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in the immune response to acute bacterial infection in the nonneutropenic host: an overview. Clin Infect Dis 1994;18(Suppl 2):S197-204.
94. Lister PD, Gentry MJ, Preheim LC. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor protects control rats but not ethanol-fed rats from fatal pneumococcal pneumonia. J Infect Dis 1993;168:922-6.
95. Hogg JC, Doerschuk CM. Leukocyte traffic in the lung. Annu Rev Physiol 1995;57:97-114.
96. Mizgerd JP, Meek BB, Kutkoski GJ, Biullard DC, Beaudet AL, Doerschuk CM. Selectins and neutrophil traffic: margination and Streptococcus pneumoniae-induced emigration in murine lungs. J Exp Med 1996;184:639-45.
97. Pilewski JM, Albelda SM. Adhesion molecules in the lung. An overview. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;148:531-7.
98. Doerschuk CM, Winn RK, Coxson HO, Harlan JM. CD18-dependent and -independent mechanisms of neutrophil emigration in the pulmonary and systemic microcirculation of rabbits. J Immunol 1990;144:2327-33.
99. Anderson VM, Turner T. Histopathology of childhood pneumonia in developing countries. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13(Suppl 6):S470-6.
100. Bartlett JG. Pneumonia in the patient with HIV infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1998;12:807-20.
101. Simons RJ, Reynolds HY. Altered immune status in the elderly. Semin Respir Infect 1990;5:251-9.
102. Janoff EN, O'Brien J, Thompson P, et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae colonization, bacteremia, and immune response among persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis 1993;167:49-56.
103. Cunha FQ, Moncada S, Liew F. Interleukin-10 inhibits the induction of nitric oxide synthase by interferon-gamma in murine macrophages. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1992;182:1155-9.
104. Fiorentino DF, Zlotnik A, Vieira P, et al. IL-10 acts on the antigen presenting cell to inhibit cytokine production by Th1 cells. J Immunol 1991;146:3444-51.
105. Cundell DR, Tuomanen EI. Receptor specificity of adherence of Streptococcus pneumoniae to human type-II pneumocytes and vascular endothelial cells in vitro. Microb Pathog 1994;17:361-74.
106. Rhodes GC, Lykke AW, Tapsall JW, Smith LW. Abnormal alveolar epithelial repair associated with failure of resolution in experimental streptococcal pneumonia. J Pathol 1989;159:245-53.
107. Nelson S, Bagby GJ, Bainton BG, Wilson LA, Thompson JJ, Summer WR. Compartmentalization of intraalveolar and systemic lipopolysaccharide-induced tumor necrosis factor and the pulmonary inflammatory response. J Infect Dis 1989;159:189-94.
108. Dehoux MS, Boutten A, Ostinelli J, et al. Compartmentalized cytokine production within the human lung in unilateral pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150:710-6.
109. Simpson SQ, Casey LC. Role of tumor necrosis factor in sepsis and acute lung injury. Crit Care Clin 1989;5:27-47.
110. Hennet T, Ziltener HJ, Frei K, Peterhans E. A kinetic study of immune mediators in the lungs of mice infected with influenza A virus. J Immunol 1992;149:932-9.
111. Moussa K, Michie HJ, Cree IA, et al. Phagocyte function and cytokine production in community acquired pneumonia. Thorax 1994;49:107-11.
112. Wizemann TM, Laskin DL. Effects of acute endotoxemia on production of cytokines and nitric oxide by pulmonary alveolar and interstitial macrophages. Ann NY Acad Sci 1994;730:336-7.
113. Gutierrez HH, Pitt BR, Schwarz M, et al. Pulmonary alveolar epithelial inducible NO synthase gene expression: regulation by inflammatory mediators. Am J Physiol 1995;268:L501-8.
114. Miles PR, Bowman L, Huffman L. Nitric oxide alters metabolism in isolated alveolar type II cells. Am J Physiol 1996;271:L23-30.
115. Punjabi CJ, Laskin JD, Pendino KJ, Goller NL, Durham SK, Laskin DL. Production of nitric oxide by rat type II pneumocytes: increased expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase following inhalation of a pulmonary irritant. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1994;11:165-72.
116. Willis RA, Nussler AK, Fries KM, Geller DA, Phipps RP. Induction of nitric oxide synthase in subsets of murine pulmonary fibroblasts: effect on fibroblast interleukin-6 production. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1994;71:231-9.
117. Moncada S, Higgs A. The 1-arginine-nitric oxide pathway. N Engl J Med 1993;329:2002-12.
118. Kilbourn RG, Griffith OW. Overproduction of nitric oxide in cytokine-mediated and septic shock. J Natl Cancer Inst 1992;84:827-31.
119. Lyons CR. The role of nitric oxide in inflammation. Adv Immunol 1995;60:323-71.
120. Liew FY. Interactions between cytokines and nitric oxide. Adv Neuroimmunol 1995;5:201-9.
121. Tsai WC, Strieter RM, Zisman DA, et al. Nitric oxide is required for effective innate immunity against Klebsiella pneumoniae. Infect Immun 1997;65:1870-5.
122. Gosselin D, DeSanctis J, Boule M, Skamene E, Matouk C, Radzioch D. Role of tumor necrosis factor alpha in innate resistance to mouse pulmonary infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Infect Immun 1995;63:3272-8.
123. Kageyama N, Miura M, Ichinose M, et al. Role of endogenous nitric oxide in airway microvascular leakage induced by inflammatory mediators. Eur Respir J 1997;10:13-9.
124. Laszlo F, Whittle BJ, Evans SM, Moncada S. Association of microvascular leakage with induction of nitric oxide synthase: effects of nitric oxide synthase inhibitors in various organs. Eur J Pharmacol 1995;283:47-53.
125. Elferink JGR, VanUffelen BE. The role of cyclic nucleotides in neutrophil migration. Gen Pharmacol 1996;27:387-93.
126. Gaboury J, Woodman RC, Granger DN, Reinhardt P, Kubes P. Nitric oxide prevents leukocyte adherence: role of superoxide. Am J Physiol 1993;265:H862-7.
127. Snyder SH, Bredt DS. Biological roles of nitric oxide. Sci Am 1992;266:68-71,74-7.
128. Moncada S, Higgs EA. Endogenous nitric oxide: physiology, pathology and clinical relevance. Eur J Clin Invest 1991;21:361-74.
129. Antonini JM, van Dyke K, DiMatteo M, Reasor MJ. Attenuation of acute inflammatory effects of silica in rat lung by 21-aminosteroid, U74389G. Inflammation 1995;19:9-21.
130. Akaike T, Noguchi Y, Ijiri S, et al. Pathogenesis of influenza virus-induced pneumonia: involvement of both nitric oxide and oxygen radicals. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996;93:2448-53.
131. Terada LS, Repine JE. Oxygen radicals and lung disease. In: Fishman AP, ed. Update: Pulmonary Diseases and Disorders. Montreal: McGraw-Hill, 1992:159-74.
132. Gross SS, Wolin MS. Nitric oxide: pathophysiological mechanisms. Annu Rev Physiol 1995;57:737-69.