Saftey issues in methadone maintenance, part 1: Legal basis, mortality, and clinical results;Sicherheitsaspekte in der methadonsubstitution - Teil 1: Rechtliche rahmenbedingungen, mortalität, aktuelle ergebnisse der therapieforschung

Suchtmedizin in Forschung und Praxis

Volumn 10, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 7-27

  Soyka, Michael ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH   (Germany)

^b Privatklinik Meiringen ^*  (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Methadone; Mortality; Opioid dependence; Safety

Indexed keywords

AMPHETAMINE; BUPRENORPHINE; DIAMORPHINE; LEVOMETHADONE; METHADONE; MORPHINE; OPIATE;

DEATH; DEMOGRAPHY; DRUG DEPENDENCE; DRUG USE; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; LEGAL ASPECT; METHADONE TREATMENT; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SUICIDE;

EID: 42249106671     PISSN: 14375567     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (166)

1. Abdul-Quader AS, Friedman SR, Des Jarlais D, Marmor MM, Maslansky R, Barelme S (1987): Methadone maintenance and behavior by intravenous drug users that can transmit HIV. Contemporary Drug Problems 14, 425-434
2. Aderjan R, Hoemann S, Schmitt G, Skopp G (1995): Morphine and morphine glucuronides in serum of heroin consumers and in heroin-related deaths determined by HPLC with native fluorescence detection. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 19, 163-168
3. Amato L, Minozzi S, Davoli M, Vecchi S, Ferri M, Mayet S (2004): Psychosocial and pharmacological treatments versus pharmacological treatments for opioid detoxification. The Cochrane Database of Systematic reviews, Issue 4. Art. No.B: CD 005031
4. Amato L, Davioli M, Peducci CA, Ferri M, Faggiano F, Mattick RP (2005) An overview of systematic reviews of the effectiveness of opiate maintenance therapies: available evidence to inform clinical practice and research. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 28, 321-329
5. Backmund M, Meyer K, Wächtler M, Eichenlaub D (2003): Hepatitis C virus infection in injection drug users in Bavaria: risk factors for seropositivity. Eur J Epidemiol 18: 563-568
6. Bargagli AM, Sperati A, Davoli F, Forestiere F, Peducci CA (2001): Mortality among problem drug users in Rome: an 18-year follow-up study, 1980-1997. Addiction 96, 1455-1463
7. Barnett PG (1999): The cost-effectiveness of methadone maintenance as a health care intervention. Addiction 94, 479-488
8. Bartu A, Freeman NC, Gawthorne GS, Codde JP, Holman DJ (2004): Mortality in a cohort of opiate and amphetamine users in Perth, Western Australia. Addiction 99, 60-63.
9. Benson G, Holmberg MB (1984): Drug-related mortality in young people. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia 70, 525-534
10. Benson G, Holmberg M B (1984): Drug-related criminality among young people. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 70, 487-502
11. Bernstein KT, Bucciarelli A, Piper TM, Gross C, Tardiff K, Galea S (2007): Cocaine- and Opiate-related fatal overdose in New York City, 1990-2000. BMC Public Health 7, 31
12. Binswanger IA, Stern MF, Deyo RA, Heagerty PJ, Cheadle A, Elmore JG, Koepsell TD (2007): Release from prison - a high risk of death for former inmates. N Engl J Med 357, 157-165
13. Bird SM, Hutchinson J (2003): Male drugs-related deaths in the Forth-night after release from Prison: Scottland, 1996-99. Addiction 98, 185-190
14. Blix O, Grönbladh L (1991):The impact of methadone maintenance on the spread of HIV among IV drug users in Sweden. In: Loimer N, Schmid R, Springer A (eds.): Drug addiction and AIDS. Springer-Verlag, Wien, S-200-205
15. Blix O, Grönbladh L (1988): AIDS an IV heroin addicts: The preventive effect of methadone maintenance in Sweden. Paper presented to Fourth International Conference on AIDS, Stockholm, Sweden
16. Borges G, Walters EE, Kessler RC (2000): Associations of substance use, abuse, and dependence with subsequent suicidal behaviour. American Journal of Epidemiology 151, 781-789
17. Brosnich T, Wittchen HU (1994): Suicidal ideation an suicide attempts: comorbidity with depression, anxiety disorders, and substance use disorder. European Archives of Clinical Neuroscience, 244, 93-98
18. Brugal MT, Domingo-Salvany A, Puig R, Barrio G, Garcia de Olalla P, de la Fuente L (2005): Evaluating the impact of methadone maintenance programmes on mortality due to overdose and AIDS in a cohort of heroin users in Spain. Addiction, 100, 981-989.
19. Bryant WK, Galea S, Tracy M, Piper TM, Tardiff KJ, Vlahov D (2004): Overdose deaths attributed to methadone and heroin in New York City, 1990-1998. Addiction 99, 846-854
20. Burns JM, Martyres RF, Clode D, Boldero JM (2004): Overdose in young people using heroin: associations with mental health, prescription drug use and personal circumstances. Medical Journal of Australia 181, 25-28
21. Buster MCA, van Brussel GHA, van den Brink W (2002): An increase in overdose mortality during the first 2 weeks after entering or reentering methadone treatments in Amsterdam. Addiciton 97, 993-1001
22. Cantor C, McTaggart P, Deleo D (2001): Misclassification of suicide-the contribution of opiates. Psychopathology 34, 140-145
23. Caplehorn JRM (1996): Risk factors for non-HIV-related death among methadone maintenance patients. European Addiction Research 2, 49-52
24. Caplehorn JRM, Dalton MS, Cluff MC, Petrenas AM (1994): Retention in methadone maintenance and heroin addicts' risk of death. Addiction 89, 203-209
25. Cherubin CE, McCusker J, Baden M, Kavaler F, Amsel Z (1972): The epidemiology of death in narcotic addicts. American Journal of Epidemology 96, 11-22
26. Clausen T, Achersen K, Waal H (2007): Methadone saves Lives - Fact or Fiction? Mortality Prior to, During and after Opioid Maintenance Traetment (OMT) in Norway: a National prospective Cross-registry study, with Pretraetment Waiting ListDesign (Unpubliziert)
27. Coffin PO, Galea S, Ahern J, Leon AC, Vlahov D, Tardiff K (2003): Opiate, cocaine and alcohol combinations in accidental drug overdose deaths in New York City, 1990-1998. Addiction 98, 739-747
28. Coffin PO, Tracy M, Bucciarella A, Ompad D, Vlahov D, Galea S (2007): Identifying injection drug users at risk of non-fatal overdose. Academic Emergency Medicine 14, 616-623
29. Cooncool B, Smith H, Stimmel B (1979): Mortality rates of persons entering methadone maintenance: a seven-year study. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 6, 345-353
30. Cottrell D, Childs-Clarke A, Ghodse AH (1985): British opiate addicts: an 11-year follow-up. British Journal of Psychiatry 146, 448-450
31. Darke S, Degenhardt L, Mattick R (2007): Mortality amongst illicit drug users. Epidemiology, causes and intervention. University Press, Cambridge
32. Darke S, Kaye S, Duflou J (2005): Cocaine-related fatalities in New South Wales, Australia 1993-2002. Drug Alcohol Dependence 77, 107-114
33. Darke S, Kaye S, Ross J (2001): Geographical injecting locations among injecting drug users in Sydney, Australia. Addiction 96, 241-246
34. Darke S, Mattick R, Degenhardt L (2003): The ratio of non-fatal to fatal overdose. Addiction 98, 1169-1170
35. Darke S, Hall W, Weatherburn D, Lind B (1999): Fluctuations in heroin purità and the incidence of fatal heroin overdose. Drug and Alcohol Dependance 54, 155-161
36. Darke S, Ross J, Lynskey M, Teesson M (2004): Attempted suicide among entrants to three treatment modalities for heroin dependance in the Australian Treatment Outcome Study (ATOS): prevalence and risk factors. Drug and Alcohol Dependance 73, 1-10
37. Darke S, Ross J, Zador D, Sunjic S (2000a): Heroin-related deaths in New South Wales, Australia, 1992-1996. Drug and Alcohol Dependance 60, 141-150
38. Darke S, Sunjic S, Zador D, Prolov T (1997): A comparison of blood toxicology of heroin-related deaths and current heroin users in Sydney, Australia. Drug and Alcohol Dependance 47, 45-53
39. Davidson PJ, McLean RL, Kral AH, Gleghorn AA, Edlin BR, Moss AR (2003): Fatal heroin-related overdose in San Francisco, 1997-2000: a case for targeted intervention. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 80, 261-273
40. Davoli M, Peducci CA, Forestiere F, Doyle P, Rapiti E, Maccarelli M, Abenti DD (1993): Risk factors for overdose mortality: a case control study within a cohort of intravenous drug users. International Journal of Epidemiology 22, 273-277
41. Davoli M, Peducci CA, Rapiti E, Bargagli AM, Dippoliti D, Forestiere F, Abeni D (1997): A persistent rise in mortality among injection drug users in Rome, 1980 through 1992. American Journal of Public Health 87, 851-853
42. De Vos JW, Ufkes JG, Kaplan CD et al. (1998): L-methadone and D, L-methadone in methadone maintenance treatment: a comparison of therapeutic effectiveness and plasma concentrations. Eur Addict Res 4, 134-141
43. Degenhardt L, Hall W, Warner-Smith M, Lynskey M (2004): Illicit drug use. In: Ezzati M, Lopez A, Rodgers A, Murray OL (eds.): Comparative quantification of health risks. Global and regional burden of disease Attributable to Selected Major Risk Factors. Vol. 1. World Health Organization, Geneva, S. 1111-1175
44. Des Jarlais DC, Friedman SR, Sotheran JL et al. (1994): Continuity and change within an HIV epidemic. Injecting drug users in New York City, 1984 through 1992. Journal of American Medical Association 271, 121-127
45. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Suchtforschung und Suchttherapie (2004): AWMF-Behandlungsleitlinie "Postakutbehandlung bei Störungen durch Opioide". Sucht 50, 226-257
46. Dolan KA, Shearer J, White B, Zhou J, Kaldor J, Wodak AD (2005): Four-year follow-up of imprisoned male heroin users and methadone treatment: mortality, re-incarceration and hepatitis C infection
47. Dole VP, Robinson JW, Orraca J, Towns E, Searcy P, Caine E (1969): Methadone treatment of randomly selected crimical addicts. New Engl J Med 280, 1372-1375
48. Dole VP, Nyswander ME, Kreek MJ (1966): Narcotic blockade. Archives of Internal Medicine 118, 304-309
49. Dukes PD, Robinson GM, Robinson BJ (1992): Mortality of intravenous drug users: attenders of the Wellington drug clinic, 1972-1989. Drug and Alcohol Review 11, 197-201
50. Eap CB, Buclin T, Baumann P (2002): Interindividual variability of the clinical pharmacokinetics of opioid dependence. Clin Pharmacokinet 41, 1153-1193
51. Engström A, Adamsson CM, Allebeck P, Rydberg W (1991): Mortality in patients with substance abuse: a follow-up in Stockholm County, 1973-1984, International Journal of the Addictions 26, 91-106
52. Eskild A, Magnus P, Samuelson SO, Soholberg C, Kittelsen P (1993): Differences in mortality rates and causes of death between HIV positive and HIV negative intravenous drug users. International Journal of Epidemology 22, 315-320
53. Esteban J, Gimeno C, Barril J, Aragones A, Climent JM, de la Cruz-Pellin M (2003): Survival study of opioid addicts in relation to ist adherence to methadone maintenance treatment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 70, 193-200
54. Ezzati M, Lopez A, Rodgers A, Murray CJL (eds.) (2004): Comparative Quantification of Health Risks. Global and Regional Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risk Factors. World Health Organization, Geneva
55. Faggiano F, Vigna-Taglianti F, Versino E, Lemma P (2003): Methadone maintenance at different dosages for opioid dependence. Cochrane database of systemtic reviews; CD002208
56. Friedman LN, Williams MG, Singh TP, Friedman TR (1996): Tuberculosis, AIDS, and death among substance abusers on welfare in New York City. New England Journal of Medicine 334, 828-833
57. Frischer M, Goldberg D, Rahman M, Berney L (1997): Mortality and survival among a cohort of drug injectors in Glasgow, 1982-1994. Addiction 92, 419-427
58. Fugelstad A, Ahlner J, Brandt L, Ceder G, Eksborg S, Rajs J, Beck O (2003): Use of morphine and 6-monoacetylmorphine in blood for the evaluation of possible risk factors for sudden death in 192 heroin users. Addiction 98, 463-470
59. Fugelstad A, Annell A, Rajs J, Angren G (1997): Mortality and causes and manner of death among drug addicts in Stockholm during the period 1981-1992. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia 96, 169-175
60. Fugelstad A, Rajs J, Bottiger M, Gehrardsson M, de Verdier MG (1995): Mortality among HIV-infected intravenous addicts in Stockholm in relation to methadone treatment. Addiction 90, 711-716
61. Gagajewski A, Apple FS (2003): Methadone-related deaths in Hennepin Countiy, Minnesota, 1992-2002. Journal of Forensic Sciences 48, 668-671
62. Galli M, Musicco M (1994): Mortality of intravenous drug users, 1965-1968. Lancet September 26, 650-653
63. Gastpar M, Heinz W, Poehlke T, Pascke P (2003): Substitutionstherapie bei Drogenabhängigkeit. Berlin, Springer
64. Gearing FR, Schweitzer MD (1974): An epidemiologic evaluation of long-term methadone maintenance treatment for heroin addiction. American Journal of Epidemology 100, 101-112
65. Gerostamoulos J, Staikos V, Drummer OH (2001): Heroin-related deaths in Victoria: a review of cases for 1997 and 1998. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 61, 123-127
66. Ghodse H, Oyefesso A, Kilpatrick B (1998): Mortality of drug addicts in the United Kingdom 1967-1993. International Journal of Epidemology 27, 473-478
67. Giles W et al. (1989): Outpatient methadone programme for pregnant heroin using women. Aust NZJ Obstet Gynaecol 29, 225-229
68. Gill JR, Catanese C (2002): Sharp injury fatalities in New York City. Journal of Forensic Sciences 47, 554-557
69. Gossop M, Marsden J, Stewart D, Treacy S (2002a): Change and stability of change after treatment of drug misuse. 2 year outcomes from the National Treatment Outcome Research Study. Addictive Behaviours 27, 155-166
70. Gossop M, Steward D, Treacy S, Marsden J (2002b): A prospective study of mortality among drug misusers during a four year period after seeking treatment. Addiction 97, 39-47
71. Gourevitch MN, Friedland GH (2000): Interactions between methadone and medications used to treat HIV infection: a review. Mt Sinai J Med 67, 429-436
72. Gowing L, Ali R, White J (2006): Opioid antagonists under heavy sedation or anaesthesia for opiod withdrawal. Cochrane database of Systematic Reviews issue 2 Art. No. CD 002002
73. Grönbladh L, Ohland LS, Gunne LM (1990): Martality in heroin addiction: impact of methadone treatment. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia 82, 223-227
74. Gunne L, Grönbladh L (1981): The Swedish methadone maintenance program: A controlled study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 7, 249-256
75. Gutierrez-Cebollada J, De La Torre R, Ortuno J, Garces J, Cami J (1994): Psychotropic drug consumption and other factors associated with heroin overdose. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 35, 169-174
76. Hall W, Lynskey M, Degenhardt L (2000): Trends in opiate-related deaths in the United Kingdom and Australia, 1985-1995. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 57, 247-254
77. Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Molinoff PB, Ruddon RW, Gilman AG (eds.) (1996): Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (9th edition). McGraw-Hill, New York
78. Harris EC, Barraclough B (1997): Suicide as an outcome for mental disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry 170, 205-228
79. Hickman M, Madden P, Henry J, Baker A, Wallace C, Wakefield J, Stimson G, Elliot P (2003): Trends in drug overdose deaths in England and Wales 1993-1998: methadone does not kill more people than heroin. Addiction 98, 419-425
80. Hoffmann C, Rockstroh J, Kamps B (2005): HIV-Medizin 2005. www.HIVMedicine.com
81. Hser Y, Anglin MD, Powers K (1993): A 24-year follow-up of California narcotic addicts. Archives of General Psychiatry 50, 577-584
82. Hser Y, Grella C, Chou CP, Anglin MD (1998): Relationship between drug treatment careers and outcomes: findings from National Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Study. Evaluation Review 22, 496-519
83. Hser Y, Hoffman V, Grella C, Anglin MD (2001): A 33-year follow-up of narcotic addicts. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 503-508
84. Hurley S, Jolley DJ, Kaldor JM (1997): Effectiveness of needle-exchange programmes for prevention of HIV infection. Lancet 349, 1797-1800
85. th edition. McGrath Hill, Now York, S. 532-581
86. Joe GW, Lehman W, Simpson DD (1982): Addict death rates during a four-year posttreatment follow-up. American Journal of Public Health 72, 703-709
87. Judson BA, Horns WH, Goldstein A et al. (1976): Side effects of levomethadone and racemic methadone in a maintenance program. Clin Pharmacol Ther 20, 445-449
88. Karch SB (2002): Karch's Pathology of Drug Abuse. 3rd Edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
89. Kintz P (2001): Deaths involving buprenorphine: a compendium of French cases. Forensic Science International 121, 65-69
90. Kintz P, Mangin P, Lugnier AA, Chaumont AJ (1989):Toxicological data after heroin overdose. Human Toxicology 8, 487-489
91. th annual scientific meeting. The Committee on Problems of Drug Dependence, Inc. US Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD, S. 53-62
92. Kreek MJ (1983): Factors modifying the pharmacological effectiveness of methadone. In: Cooper JR, Altman F, Brown BS, Czechowicz D (eds.): Research on the treatment of narcotic addiction: state of the art. US Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD, S. 53-63
93. Kronstrand R, Grundin, R & Jonsson, J (1998): Incidence of opiates, amphetamines, and cocaine in hair and blood in fatal cases of heroin overdose. Forensic Science International, 92, 29-38
94. Limburg W (2004): Natural history treatment and prevention of hepatitis C in injecting drug users: an overview. In J. Jager, W. Limburg, M. Kretzschmar, M. Postma, L. Wiessing (Eds.), Hepatitis C and injecting drug use: Impact, costs and policy options. EMCDDA Monograph 7 (pp. 21-38). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
95. Maddux JF, Desmond DP (1992): Ten-year follow-up after admission to methadone maintenance. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 18, 289-303
96. Martyres RF, Clode D, Burns JM (2004): Seeking drugs or seeking help? Escalating "doctor shopping" by young heroin users before fatal overdose. Medical Journal of Australia 180, 211-214
97. Marx A, Schick MT, Minder CE (1994): Drug-related mortality in Switzerland from 1987 to 1989 in comparison to other countries. International Journal of the Addictions 29, 837-860
98. Mattick RP, Ali R, White JM, O'Brien S, Wolk S, Danz C (2003c): Buprenorphine versus methadone maintenance therapy: a randomized double-blind trial with 405 opioid-dependent patients. Addiction 98, 441-452
99. Mattick RP, Kimber J, Breen C, Davoli M (2003b): Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence [Cochrane review]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Chichester: John Wiley
100. Maxwell JC, Pullum TW, Tannert K (2005): Deaths of clients in methadone treatment in Texas, 1994-2000. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 78, 73-81
101. McAnulty JM, Tesselaar H, Fleming DW (1995): Mortality among injection drug users identified as "out of treatment". American Journal of Public Health 85, 119-120
102. McCance-Katz EF, Gourevitch MN, Arnsten J, Sarlo J, Rainey P, Jatlow P (2002): Modified directly observed therapy (MDOT) for injection drug users with HIV disease. American Journal of the Addictions 11, 271-278
103. McGregor C, Ali R, Lokan R, Christie P, Darke S (2002): Accidental fatalities among heroin users in South Australia, 1994-1997: toxicological findings and circumstances of death. Addiction Research and Theory 10, 335-346
104. Metzger DS, Woody GE, McLellan AT et al. (1993): Human immunodeficiency virus seroconversion among intravenous drug users inand out-of-treatment: an 18-month prospective follow-up. J Acquired Immune Deficiency syndromes 6, 1049-1056
105. Monforte JR (1977): Some observations concerning blood morphine concentrations in narcotic addicts. Journal of Forensic Sciences 22, 718-724
106. Musto DF, Ramos MR (1981): A follow-up study of the New Haven morphine maintenance clinic of 1920. New England Journal of Medicine 304, 1071-1077
107. Newman R, Whitehill W (1979): Double-blind comparison of methadone and placebo maintenance treatments of narcotic addicts in Hong Kong. Lancet 8, 485-488
108. Ødegard E, Amundsen EJ, Kielland KB (2007): Fatal overdoses and deaths by other causes in a cohort of Norwegian drug abuses - a competing risk approach. Drug Alcohol Depend 89, 176-182
109. Oppenheimer E, Tobutt C, Taylor C, Andrew T (1994): Death and survival in a cohort of heroin addicts from London clinics: a 22 year follow-up. Addiction 89, 1299-1308
110. Orti RM, Domingo-Salvany A, Munoz A, MacFarlane D, Suelves JM, Anto JM (1996): Mortalità trends in a cohort of opiate addicts, Catalona, Spain. International Journal of Epidemology 25, 545-553
111. Oyefesso A, Ghodse H, Clancy C, Corkery JM, Goldfinch R (1999b): Drug-related mortality: a study of teenage addicts over a 20-year period. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemology 34, 437-441
112. Penning R, v Meyer L, Sachs H, Zinka B (2005): Methadon-assoziierte Todesfälle. Suchtmed 7, 19-25
113. Perret G, Deglon J, Kreek MJ, Ho A, La Harpe R (2000): Lethal methadone intoxications in Geneva, Switzerland, from 1994-1998. Addiction 95, 1647-1653
114. Perucci CA, Davoli M, Rapiti E, Abeni DD, Forestieri F (1991): Mortality of intravenous drug users in Rome: a cohort study. American Journal of Public Health 81, 1307-1310
115. Pirnay S, Borron SW, Guidecelli CP, Tourneau J, Baud FJ, Ricordel I (2004): A critical review of the causes of death among post-mortem toxicological investigations: analysis of 34 buprenorphine-associated and 35 methadone-associated deaths. Addiction 99, 978-988
116. Pollack H, Heimer R (2004): The impact and cost-effectiveness of methadone maintenance treatment in preventing HIV and hepatitis C. In: Jager J, Limburg W, Kretzschmar M, Postma M, Wiessing L (eds.): Hepatitis C and injectiong drug use: impact, costs and policy options. EMCDDA Monograph 7. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembour, S. 345-370
117. Quaglio G, Talamini G, Lechi A, Venturini L, Lugoboni F, Gruppo Intersert Di Collaborazione Scientifica, Mezzelani P (2001): Study of heroin-related deaths north-eastern Italy 1985-98 to establish main causes of death. Addiction 96, 127-137
118. Rehm J, Frick U, Hartwig C, Gutzwiller F, Gschwend P, Uchtenhagen A (2005): Mortality in heroin-assisted treatment in Switzerland 1994-2000. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 79, 137-143
119. Reynaud M, Petti G, Potard D, Courty P (1998): Six deaths linked to concomitant use of buprenorphine and benzodiazepines. Addiction 93, 1385-1392
120. Risser D, Uhl A, Stichenwirth M, Honigschnabl S, Hirz W, Schneider B, Stellwag-Carion C, Klupp N, Vycudilik W, Bauer G (2000): Quality of heroin and heroin-related deaths from 1987 to 1995 in Vienna, Austria. Addiction 95, 375-382
121. Rossow I (1994): Suicide among drug addicts in Norway. Addiction 89, 1667-1673
122. Ruttenber AJ, Luke JL (1984): Heroin-related deaths: new epidemiologic insights. Science 226, 14-20
123. Runntenber J, Kalter HD, Santinga P (1990): The role of ethanol abuse in the etiology of heroin related deaths. J Forens Sci 35, 891-900
124. Sanchez-Carbonell X, Seus L (2000): Ten-year survival analysis of a cohort of heroin addicts in Catalonia: the EMETYST project. Addiction 95, 941-948
125. Schäfer M et al. (2005): Adherence and mental side effects during hepatitis C treatment with interferon alfa and ribavirin in psychiatric risk groups. Hepatology 37, 443-451
126. Scherbaum N, Finkbeiner T, Leifert K et al. (1996): The efficacy of I-methadone and racemic methadone in substitution treatment for opiate addicts: a double-blind comparison. Pharmacopsychiatry 29, 212-215
127. Scherbaum N (2007): Substitutionstherapie bei Opiatabhängigkeit. Psychiatrie und Psychotherapieup2date 1, 401-411
128. Schifano F, Oyefesso A, Corkery J, Cobain K, Jambert-Gray R, Martinotti G, Ghodse AH (2003a): Death rates from ecstasy (MDMA, MDA) and polydrug use in England and Wales, 1996-2002. Psychopharmacology 18, 519-524
129. Schifano F, Oyefesso A, Webb L, Pollard M, Corkery J, Ghodse AH (2003b): Review of deaths related to taking ecstasy, England and Wales, 1997-2000. British Medical Journal 326, 80-81
130. Schoenbaum EE, Hartel D, Selwyn PA, Klein RS, Davenny K, Rogers M, Feiner C, Friedland G (1989): Risk factors for human immunodeficiency virus infection in intravenous drug users. New England Journal of Medicine 321, 874-879
131. Seaman SR, Brettle RP, Gore SM (1998): Mortality from overdose among injecting drug users recently released from prison: database linkage study. British Medical Journal 316, 426-428
132. Segest E, Mygind O, Bay H (1990): The influence of prolonged stable methadone maintenance treatment on mortality and employment: an 8-year follow-up. International Journal of the Addictions 25, 53-63
133. Seymour A, Black M, Jay J, Cooper G, Weir C, Oliver J (2003): The role of methadone in drug-related deaths in the west of Scotland. Addiction 98, 995-1002
134. Seymour A, Oliver JS, Black M (2000): Drug-related deaths among recently released prisoners in the Strathclyde region of Scotland. Journal of Forensic Sciences 45, 649-654
135. Shah N, Lanthrop SL, Landon MG (2005): Unintentional methadone-erlated overdose death in New Mexico (USA) and implications for surveillance, 1998-2002. Addiction 100, 176-188
136. Soyka M, Banzer K, Erbas B, Koller G, Backmund M (2006): Substitutionsbehandlung Drogenabhängiger - rechtliche Grundlagen und neue Ergebnisse der Therapieforschung. Nervenheilkunde 25, 286-294
137. Soyka M, Apelt SM, Wittchen HU (2006): Die unzureichende Beteiligung von Psychiatern an der Substitutionsbehandlung. Nervenarzt 77, 1368-1372
138. Stimmel B, Goldberg J, Reisman A, Murphy RJ, Teets K (1982-1983): Fetal outcome in narcotic-dependant women: the importance of the type of maternal narcotic used. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 9, 383-395
139. Strain EC, Sitzer ML, Liebson IA, Bigelow GE (1993): Dose-response effects of methadone in the treatment of opiod dependence. Ann Intern Med 119, 23-27
140. Strain EC, Stitzer ML, Liebson IA, Bigelow GE (1994a): Buprenorphine versus methadone in the treatment of opioid-dependent cocaine users. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 116, 401-406
141. Strang J, McCambridge J, Best D, Beswick T, Bearn J, Rees S, Gossop M (2003): Loss of tolerance and overdose mortality after inpatient opiate detoxification: follow up study. British Medical Journal 356, 959-960
142. Sullivan LE, Metzger DS, Fudala PJ, Fiellin DA (2005): Decreasing international HIV transmission: the role of expanding access to opioid agonist therapies for injection drug users. Addiction 100, 150-158
143. Sunjic S, Zador D (1999): Methadone related deaths in New South Wales 1990-1995. Drug and Alcohol Review 18, 409-415
144. Termorshuizen F, Krol A, Prins M, van Ameijden EJC (2005): Long-term outcome of chronic drug use: The Amsterdam Cohort study among drug users. American Journal of Epidemiology 161, 271-279
145. Tunving K (1988): Fatal outcome in drug addiction. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia 77, 551-566
146. UNAIDS (2004): Report on the global AIDS epidemic. 4th global report. Geneva: UNAIDS/04.16E
147. United Nations Office for Drug Control (2004): World illict drug report 2004. United Nations Publications, New York
148. Van Ameijden EJC, Krol A, Vlahov D, Flynn C, van Haarstrecht HJA, Coutinho RA (1999a): Pre-AIDS mortality and morbidity among injection drug users in Amsterdam and Baltimore: an ecological comparison. Substance Use and Misuse 34, 845-865
149. Van Ameijden FJC, Langemadzm MW, Coutinho RA (1999b): Dose-effect relationship between overdose martality and prescribed methadone dosage in low-threshold maintenance programs. Addictive Behaviors 24, 559-563
150. Van Haarstrecht HJA, van Ameijden FJC, van den Hoek JAR, Mientjes GHC, Bax JS, Coutinho RA (1996): Predictors of mortality in the Amsterdam cohort of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive and HIV-negative drug users. American Journal of Epidemology 143, 380-391
151. Vanichseni S, Wongsuwan B, The Staff of BMA Narcotics Clinic No.6, Choopanya K, Wongpanich K (1991): A controlled trial of methadone in a population of intravenous drug users in Bangkok: implications for prevention of HIV. International Journal of the Addictions 26, 1313-1320
152. Vingoe L, Welch S, Farrell M, Strang J (1999): Heroin overdose among a treatment sample of injecting drug misusers: accident or suicidal behaviour? Journal of Substance Use 4, 88-91
153. Wahren CA, Brandt L, Allebeck P (1997): Has mortality in drug addicts increased? A comparison between hospitalized cohorts in Stockholm. International Journal of Epidemology 26, 1219-1226
154. Ward J, Mattick RP, Hall W (1998): Methadone maintenance treatment and other opioid replacement therapies. Harwood, Amsterdam
155. Ward J, Hall W, Mattick RP (1999): Role of maintenance treatment in opioid dependence. Lancet 353, 221-226
156. Ward J, Mattick RP, Hall W (1992): Key issues in methadone maintenance treatment. New South Wales University Press, Sydney
157. Watterson O, Simpson DW, Sells SB (1975): Death rates and causes of death among opioid addicts in community drug treatment programs during 1970-1973. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 2, 99-111
158. White J, Irvine R (1999): Mechanisms of fatal opioid overdose. Addiction 95, 961-972
159. Wille R (1981): Ten-year follow-up of a representative sample of London heroin addicts: attendance, abstinence and mortality. British Journal of Addiction 76, 259-266
160. Williamson PA, Foreman KJ, White JM, Anderson G (1997): Methadone-related overdose deaths in South Australia, 1984-1994. How safe is prescribing? Medical Journal of Australia 166, 302-305
161. Wines JD jun, Saitz R, Horton J, Lloyd-Travaglini C, Samet JH (2007): Overdose after detoxification: A prospective study. Drug Alcohol Depend 89, 161-169
162. Yancovitz S, Des Jarlais D, Peskoe Peyser N, Drew E, Friedman P, Trigg H, Robinson J (1991): A randomized trial of an interim methadone maintenance clinic. A J of Pub Health 81, 1185-1191
163. Zaccarelli M, Gattari P, Rezza G, Conti S, Spizzichino L, Vlahov D, Ippolito G, Lelli V, Valenza C (1994): Impact of HIV infection on non-AIDS mortality among Italian injecting drug users. AIDS 8, 345-350
164. Zador D, Sunjic S (2000): Deaths in methadone maintenance treatment in New South Wales, Australia 1990-1995. Addiction 95, 77-84
165. Zador D, Sunjic S (2002): Methadone-related deaths and mortality rate during induction into methadone maintenance, New South Wales, 1996. Drug and Alcohol Review 21, 131-136
166. Zanis DA, Woody GE (1998): One-year mortality rates following methadone treatment discharge. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 52, 257-260