The role of the military in the cohesion and stability of Pakistan

Contemporary South Asia

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 39-61

  Gregory, Shaun ^a   Revill, James ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRACY; MILITARY GOVERNMENT; POLITICAL CONFLICT; POLITICAL INSTABILITY; POLITICAL SYSTEM; REGIONAL POLITICS; SOCIAL JUSTICE;

ASIA; EURASIA; NORTH AMERICA; PAKISTAN; SOUTH ASIA; UNITED STATES;

EID: 42149139436     PISSN: 09584935     EISSN: 1469364X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09584930701800388     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. P. Musharraf, 'Full text of General Musharraf's address', BBC News 12 October 1999, (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/monitoring/ 473175.stm), accessed 4 June 2007.
2. See A.A. Khan, 'Good governance', Defence Journal, November 1999, (http://www.defencejournal.com//nov99/governance.htm), accessed 28 September 2007
3. S. Ganguly, 'Pakistan's never ending story', Foreign Affairs, Vol 79, No 2, March/April 2000, p 2
4. H.A. Rizvi, 'Pakistan in 1998: The polity under pressure', Asian Survey, Vol 39, No. 1, 2000, pp 177-184
5. S.P. Cohen, 'The Pakistan time bomb', The Washington Post, 3 July 2007, (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/02/ AR2007070201556.html), accessed 28 September 2007.
6. R. Khan, The American Papers: Secret and Confidential India - Pakistan - Bangladesh Documents, 1965-1973 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1st edition], 1999).
7. The conflict can be seen as a victory in the sense that Pakistan fended off the challenge from its larger neighbour and secured territory, albeit desert. See H. Haqqani, Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2005), p 49.
8. Certainly it seems to have been diplomatically naive to expect the United States to support the Pakistani-triggered uprising, especially when the United States was growing concerned with Pakistan's relations with China.
9. See Haqqani, op cit, Ref 4, p 49.
10. See R.G. Kyle, Indian - Pakistan War of 1971: A Modern War (Marine Corps Command and Staff College, 14 March 1964), (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1984/KRG.htm), accessed 28 September 2007
11. G.H. Niaz, 'Fifty years of the Pakistan army (the misplaced sojourn)', Defence Journal, October 1999, (http://www.defencejournal.com// oct99/50years-army.htm), accessed 28 September 2007.
12. M.B. Naqvi, 'Army's role in politics', Defence Journal, September 2000, (http://www.defencejournal.com//2000/sept/army-role.htm), accessed 4 June 2007.
13. S.P. Cohen, The Pakistani Military (Oxford: Oxford University Press, [second edition], 1998), p 108.
14. Naqvi, op cit, Ref 8.
15. Haqqani, op cit, Ref 4, p 148.
16. In combination with alliance with the United States to counter India these elements form what Haqqani describes as the Pakistani military's policy tripod. See Haqqani, op cit, Ref 4, p 322.
17. I. Malik, Islam Nationalism and the West (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1999), p 252.
18. The so-called 'bomb for the Ummah' is a clear example of how a huge chunk of the economy has been diverted to the military. See A. Levy and C. Scott-Clark, Deception-Pakistan, The United States and the Global Nuclear Weapons Conspiracy (London: Atlantic Books, 2007).
19. This analysis is not confined to the western critics nor to Pakistani civilians, as Col (Retd) Abdul Qayyum stated: 'What has taken place so far has been ad-hoc, sporadic, an immediate response to immediate compulsions, not a pattern consciously woven in pursuit of a grand design'. See A. Qayyum, 'Pakistan army's "mosaic of ideas"-I', Defence Journal, April 2000, (http://www.defencejournal.com//2000/apr/mosaic.htm), accessed 4 June 2007.
20. A. Durrani, 'It is not a tiger', The Nation, 16 August 2006, (http://www.nation.com.pk/daily/august-2006/16/columns3.php), accessed 4 June 2007.
21. The Jamaat-ud-Dawa, for example, were one of the most effective forces following the earthquakes. The MMA came to power on a promise of 'ensur[ing] provision of roti, kapra aur makan, besides health and education facilities for every citizen and will withdraw all "unjust" taxes... distribution of state land among landless peasants free of cost as well as provision of subsidized farm inputs to strengthen the rural economy... provision of basic rights, and protection from state violence, oppression and corruption... just distribution of wealth and check concentration of money in a few hands'.
22. See A. Mahmood, 'MMA promises roti, kapra, makan', The Dawn, 25 August 2002, (http://www.dawn.com/2002/08/25/local50.htm), accessed 4 June 2007.
23. The term civil society is not cohesively defined with various epistemological, ontological and philosophical approaches underlying the disparity of definitions; however, for the purposes of this discussion, civil society should be understood as being those institutions serving but independent of the Government and what Kaldor terms 'social movement and civic activism'. See M. Kaldor, Global Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2003), p 10.
24. Certainly Ayub Khan contended 'Pakistan's salvation lay in a strong centre'.
25. See O. Bennett-Jones, Pakistan Eye of the Storm (London: Yale University Press, 2003), p 110.
26. Malik, op cit, Ref 13, p 112.
27. The Prophet Mohammed, who is idealised by many Muslims, is both statesman and prophet, and the separation is not as clear in western culture.
28. Malik, op cit, Ref 13, p 255.
29. P. Musharraf, 'General Pervez Musharraf's address to the nation', 17 October 1999, (http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/ post_12oct99/musharraf_address_17oct1999.html), accessed 4 June 2007.
30. Ibid.
31. Benazir Bhutto (Pakistan People's Party), Nawaz Sharif (Pakistan Muslim League) and Altaf Hussain Muttahida Quami Movement have all been forced into exile. See I.H. Malik, 'Pakistan in 2000: Starting anew of stalemate', Asian Survey, Vol 41, No. 1, January - February 2001, p 105.
32. See M. Kamran, 'AG given 12 days to reply in MMA MPs' case', Daily Times, 9 May 2003, (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/ default.asp?page=story_9-5-2003_pg7_39), accessed 28 September 2007
33. Z. Abbas, 'Pakistan laws target Bhutto return', BBC News, 2 August 2002, (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/world/south_asia/2167650.stm), accessed 4 June 2007.
34. R.B. Muralidhar, 'One step forward, two backward', Frontline, Vol 19, No 3, 2002, (http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1903/19031320.htm), accessed 28 September 2007.
35. James Orr and agencies, 'Pakistan on brink of power-sharing deal, says minister', The Guardian, 4 October 2007, (http://www.guardian.co.uk/pakistan/Story/0,,2183530,00.html), accessed 5 October 2007.
36. According to Hussain Haqqani, 'This included [inter alia] the head of the Alliance for the Restoration of Democracy (ARD), Nawabzada Nasarullah Khan, an octogenarian politician whose political career spanned six decades'. See H. Haqqani, 'Countries at the crossroads 2004 - country report - Pakistan', Freedom Files, (http://www.freedomhouse.org/modules/publications/ccr/ modPrintVersion.cfm?edition=1&ccrpage=5&ccrcountry=60), accessed 28 September 2007.
37. A. Abbasi, 'Retired, serving military officers still all around', The Daily Times, 6 April 2006, (http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/ apr2006-daily/06-04-2006/metro/i16.htm), accessed 28 September 2007.
38. Staff Reporter, 'Armymen in civil depts told not to wear uniforms', The Dawn, 19 March 2004, (http://www.dawn.com/2004/03/19/nat23.htm), accessed 28 September 2007.
39. 'A close look at the figures shows that these military personnel occupy 13 posts in the cabinet division, 5 posts in the commerce ministry, 98 in communications ministry, 113 in the defence division, 52 in the defence production division, 9 in the education ministry, 16 in the establishment division, 24 in the ministry of foreign affairs, 6 in the ministry of food, agriculture and livestock. There are 88 military officers working in the ministry of interior, 2 in the health ministry, 6 in the housing and works ministry, 29 in the industries and production ministry, 3 in the information and broadcasting ministry, 58 in the ministry of Information Technology, 25 in the Kashmir affairs and northern affairs ministry, five in the labour and manpower division, 17 in the ministry of minorities affairs, 39 in the ministry of petroleum and natural resources, just one each in the ministry of population welfare, the planning and development division and the ministry of religious affairs. There are two military officials working in the revenue division (CBR), 21 in the ministry of science and technology, 72 in the ministry of railways/railway board, 37 in the ministry of water and power, 5 in the ministry of women development, 6 in the Wafaqi Mohtasib. There are another 37 officers who have been inducted under the military's 10 per cent quota in civilian posts over and above these appointments'.
40. See N. Iqbal, '1,027 civilian posts occupied by servicemen', The Dawn 3 October 2003, (http://www.dawn.com/2003/10/03/nat12.htm), accessed 4 June 2007.
41. Lieutenant General Ashraf Jehangir Qazi, then Ambassador, USA (no longer correct, now special envoy to Iraq); Brigadier (r) Abdul Majeed Khan, Ambassador, Tajikistan; Major General Saleemullah, Ambassador, United Arab Emirates; Major General Muhammad Hussan Aqeel, Ambassador, Thailand; Lieutenant General Asad Durrani, Ambassador, Saudi Arabia; Vice Admiral (r) Shamoon Aslam Khan, Ambassador, Ukraine; Air Marshal (r) Najeeb Akhtar, Ambassador, Brazil; Major General Syed Mustafa Anwaar Hussain, Ambassador, Indonesia; Lieutenant General (r) Muhammad Shafiq, Ambassador, Bahrain; Major General (r) Shujaat Khan, Ambassador, Morocco; Major General (r) Badarud Din, Ambassador, Brunei; Vice Admiral (r) Khalid Meer, Ambassador, Lebanon; Brigadier (r) Muhammad Nisar, Ambassador, Argentina; Brigadier (r) Saeed Ahmad Rafi, Director General of Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Brigadier (r) Mian Khali Habib, Chief of Protocol Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Brigadier Tipu Sultan, DG of Ministry for Foreign Affairs; Group Capt. (r) Khalid Aziz Babar, DG of Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Naval Lt (r) Qasim Raza Mutaqi, Counselor, Rome, Italy; Col (r) Salik Nawaz, Deputy Chief of Protocol, Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Capt. (r) Shaukat Muqaddam, Counselor, Doublin; Capt. (r) Masood Akhtar, Deputy Chief of Protocol, Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Capt. (r) Zaigumud Din Azam Khan, Counselor, Berlin, Germany; Capt. (r) Sohail Itehad Hussain, DG of Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Capt. (r) Khalid Durrani, Director of Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
42. Staff Report, 'Army has usurped land and civilian posts: Lawyer', The Daily Times, 5 August 2003, (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/ default.asp?page=story_5-8-2003_pg7_26), accessed 28 September 2007.
43. A. Rashid, 'EU condemns "flawed" Pakistan elections', Daily Telegraph, 14 October 2002, (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/ main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/10/14/wpak14.xml), accessed 28 September 2007.
44. Ibid.
45. The National Accountability Bureau, (http://www.nab.gov.pk/index.asp), accessed 22 September 2007.
46. P. Musharraf, 'Dialogue process with political leadership for political reconciliation: Musharraf', President of Pakistan, 23 August 2007, (http://www.presidentofpakistan.gov.pk/NewsEventsDetail.aspx? NewsEventID=3781), accessed 21 September 2007.
47. Lt-Gen Munir Hafiez chaired the bureau until November 2005. He was subsequently replaced by Lt-Gen (Retd) Shahid Aziz. See: Associated Press of Pakistan, 'NAB holds DGs' conference', The Dawn, 2 February 2007, (http://www.dawn.com/2007/02/02/local2.htm), accessed 11 September 2007
48. Staff Reporter, 'NAB officials' conference concludes', The Dawn, 7 April 2006, (http://www.dawn.com/2006/04/07/nat24.htm), accessed 14 September 2007
49. Staff Reporter, 'NAB chairman retires', The Dawn, 1 November 2005, (http://www.dawn.com/2005/11/01/nat18.htm), accessed 11 September 2007.
50. Human Rights Watch has been persistently critical over this issue, and in 2005 they stated: 'The government continued to use the National Accountability Bureau (NAB) and a host of anti-corruption and sedition laws to jail political opponents or blackmail them into changing their political stance or loyalties or at the very least to cease criticizing the military authorities'. See Human Rights Watch Online, (http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/12/14/pakist9852.htm), accessed 11 September 2007
51. Bureau Report, 'Military govts blamed for crisis', The Dawn, 6 June 2007, (http://www.dawn.com/2007/06/06/nat30.htm), accessed 8 June 2007.
52. A. Shah, 'Accountability without exception', The Dawn, 31 July 2004, (http://www.dawn.com/2004/07/31/op.htm), accessed 8 June 2007.
53. See International Crisis Group, 'Devolution in Pakistan: Reform or Regression?', Asia Report No 77, 22 March 2004, (http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/asia/south_asia/ 077_pakistan_devolution.doc), accessed 8 June 2007.
54. Some commentators have termed linkage as 'fallacious' because in the case of Zia and Ayub 'power was firmly in the hands of the bureaucracy'; however, the argument that the devolution of power has actually devolved power now and that 'power is no longer in the hands of the bureaucracy' appears incredulous. For this alternative approach, see A. Amir, 'A revolution from above', The Dawn, 18 August 2000, (http://www.dawn.com/weekly/ayaz/20000818.htm), accessed 8 June 2007.
55. International Crisis Group, op cit, Ref 41.
56. International Crisis Group, 'Pakistan's local polls: Shoring up military rule', Asia Briefing No 43, 22 November 2005, (http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=3799&l=1), accessed 8 June 2007.
57. Haqqani, op cit, Ref 4, p 242.
58. Based on the latest available information, the current composition is: General Pervez Musharraf, President of Pakistan; Shaukat Aziz, Prime Minister of Pakistan; Muhammad Mian Soomro, Chairman, Senate; Maulana Fazal-ur-Rahman, Opposition Leader in National Assembly; Ch. Amir Hussain, Speaker, National Assembly; Ch. Pervaiz Ellahi, Chief Minister of Punjab; Dr Arbab Ghulam Rahim, Chief Minister of Sindh; Akram Khan Durrani, Chief Minister of NWFP; Jam Muhammad Yousaf, Chief Minister of Balochistan; General Ehsanul Haq, Chairman Joint Chief of Staff Committee; General Ahsan Saleem Hayat, Vice Chief of Army Staff; Admiral Muhammad Afzal Tahir, Chief of Naval Staff; and Air Chief Marshal Tanvir Mahmud Ahmed, Chief of Air Staff. See Infopak, (http://www.infopak.gov.pk/nationalsecurity.aspx), accessed 8 June 2007.
59. P. Anderson, 'Pakistan Security Council meets', BBC News, 4 June 2004, (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3837235.stm), accessed 8 June 2007.
60. An important example being the military's control of the National University of Science and Technology.
61. 'Karachi: Privatization process not transparent, says PPP', The Dawn (http://www.dawn.com/2006/04/07/local15.htm), accessed 8 June 2007.
62. See, for example, Haqqani, op cit, Ref 4, p 149.
63. It is difficult to determine more accurately without examples of the textbooks through which this curriculum is being promulgated to students. See A.H. Nayyar, 'Twisted truth: Press and politicians make gains from SDPI curriculum report', SDPI Research and News Bulletin Vol 11, No 1, January - February 2004, pp 1, 2, 7, (http://www.sdpi.org/help/research_and_news_bulletin/ nbjanfeb04/articles/text%20only/text=20only.htm), accessed 14 October 2007.
64. A Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI) report suggested that, under Zia, education was corrupted by 'distorted narration of history, factual inaccuracies, inclusion of hate material, a disproportionate inclusion of Islamic studies in other disciplines, glorification of war and the military, gender bias, etc. Subsequent governments either failed to check these harmful deviations, or willingly perpetuated them'. See Ibid.
65. 'Indian textbooks have a highly slanted and prejudiced view of minorities, particularly Muslims'. Z.S. Ahmed & M. Baxter, 'Attitudes of teachers in India and Pakistan: Texts and contexts', Collaborative Research Studies 1, Women in Security Conflict Management and Peace (WISCOMP) (New Delhi: WISCOMP Publication, 2007).
66. Certainly Siddiqa notes that in Pakistan there is 'an almost unquestioning acceptance of the classical realist paradigm for understanding strategic issues or international relations. This is primarily the result of the states ability to market military power as a key option for its security as a state. The military fraternity is the main beneficiary of this image, which is necessary to protect the interests of the armed forces and its civilian allies'. See A. Siddiqa, Military Inc. (London, Pluto Press, 2007), pp 108-109.
67. Government of Pakistan, National Curriculum for PAKISTAN STUDIES Grades IX -X, 2006, (http://www.moe.gov.pk/nc/ix_x/Pak.Studies%20-%20IX-X.pdf), accessed 28 October 2007.
68. Urdu-language press, which is given less attention by western rights groups, is posited to have been 'very heavily censored and controlled' by a spokesperson for Human Rights Watch. See B. Sand, 'Rights groups say Pakistani press freedom under attack', Voice of America, (http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2007-04/2007-04-27-voa21.cfm), accessed 28 October 2007.
69. Reporters without borders, (http://www.rsf.org/ article.php3?id_article=6480), accessed 28 October 2007.
70. Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, (http://www.hrcp-web.org/ ar_anualreport-06/pdf/3-3.pdf), accessed 1 October 2007.
71. H. Haroon, 'Dawn under pressure: Email from Hameed Haroon', (http://pakistaniat.com/2007/03/27/ pakistan-dawn-newspaper-pressure-letter-email-hameed-haroon/), accessed 11 September 2007.
72. Ibid.
73. Pakistan's Supreme Court has more often legalised the military coups and the dismissal of political governments since 1953 all the way to 1999 under various pedantic euphemisms such as 'the doctrine of necessity', although there have been dissenting voices, routinely bypassed by the executive.
74. I.H. Malik, 'Awaiting a breakthrough: Cyclical issues of governance in Pakistan', Brief No 17, Pakistan Security Research Unit, 8 August 2007, (http://spaces.brad.ac.uk:8080/download/attachments/748/Brief17 finalised.pdf), accessed 20 September 2007.
75. Z. Hussain, 'Musharraf's last act', Newsline, June 2007, (http://www.newsline.com.pk/NewsJun2007/cover1june2007.htm), accessed 20 September 2007.
76. 'Pakistan panel quizzes top judge', BBC News, (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6444355.stm), accessed 20 September 2007.
77. Agence France-Presse, 'Even detractors beginning to admire Iftikhar Chaudhry', The Dawn, 21 July 2007, (http://www.dawn.com/2007/07/21/nat4.htm), accessed 20 September 2007.
78. Leader, 'General unrest', The Guardian, 15 May 2007, (http://www.guardian.co.uk/pakistan/Story/0,,2079759,00.html), accessed 20 September 2007.
79. 'Lawyers protest against Musharraf', BBC News, (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/6441133.stm), accessed 3 September 2007.
80. D. Gardner, 'The general and the west: How Pakistan is being lost', Financial Times, 3 August 2007, p 11.
81. J. Richards, 'Terrorists in the Tribal Areas: Endgame for Musharraf?', Brief No 18, Pakistan Security Research Unit, 22 September 2007, (http://spaces.brad.ac.uk:8080/download/attachments/748/ Brief18finalised.pdf), accessed 26 September 2007.
82. There are also reports of troop defections that provide an indication of the complexity of this problem. See T. Niazi, 'Troop defections threaten Pakistan's operations in tribal regions', Terrorism Focus, Vol 4, No 4, 6 March 2007, p 4 (http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/ article.php?articleid=2370270), accessed 20 September 2007.
83. Certainly Ahmed Rashid has stated that 'The Waziristan deal was to prevent dissention within the Pakistan Army - border guards dying, defecting. The deal was to satisfy the Army'. See H. Abbas, 'Musharraf contends with the Pashtun element in the Pakistani army', Terrorism Monitor, Vol 3, No 42, 31 October 2006, p 5 (http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2370188), accessed 20 September 2007.
84. For details, see 'Pakistan 'ends al-Qaeda search'', BBC News, (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3649421.stm), accessed 20 September 2007
85. J. Khan, 'Waziristan draft accord approved', The Dawn, 1 February 2005, (http://www.dawn.com/2005/02/02/top3.htm), accessed 20 September 2007
86. A. Mir 'War and peace in Waziristan', Asia Times, 4 May 2005, (http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GE04Df03.html), accessed 21 September 2007.
87. J. Solomon and Z. Hussain, 'Politics & economics: U.S. sounds alarm on al Qaeda moves; pressure intensifies on Bush to eradicate Pakistani haven; unrest surrounds Musharraf', Wall Street Journal, 18 July 2007, p A.6.
88. 'Burials follow Waziristan clashes', BBC News, (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7037102.stm), accessed 12 September 2007
89. BBC News, 'Pakistan jets pound 'rebal bases'', (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7036106.stm), accessed 20 September 2007.
90. Yusufzai suggests that 'Evidence of closer cooperation between them emerged when Taliban fighters in South Waziristan took up positions recently on hilltops overlooking major roads in anticipation of military operations in North Waziristan'. See R. Yusufzai, 'Accord and discord', Newsline, August 2007, (http://www.newsline.com.pk/NewsAug2007/ specrepaug2007.htm), accessed 3 September 2007.
91. K. Lakshman, 'NWFP: Extremist encroachment', South Asia Intelligence Review Weekly Assessments & Briefings, Vol 5, No 45, 21 May 2007, (http://satp.org/satporgtp/sair/Archives/5_45.htm#assessment2), accessed 13 September 2007.
92. 'Fata Timeline - 2007', South Asia Terrorism Portal, (http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/pakistan/Waziristan/timeline/ index.html), accessed 14 October 2007.
93. Solomen and Hussian certainly claim that 'Many Pakistan watchers say Gen. Musharraf would be hard pressed to rid the tribal areas of al Qaeda and the Taliban, even if he has the will to do so. The groups operate in remote mountainous areas that neither Islamabad nor earlier British colonial governments ever controlled'. See Solomon and Hussain, op cit, Ref 73, p A.6.
94. Malik, op cit, Ref 62, p 7.
95. For details of Baluchistan bloody history, see A. Khan, 'Baloch ethnic nationalism in Pakistan: From guerrilla war to nowhere?', Asian Ethnicity, Vol 4, No 2, June 2003, pp 281-293.
96. S. Baloch, 'The Balochistan conflict: Towards a lasting peace', Brief No 7, Pakistan Security Research Unit, 1 March 2007, (http://spaces.brad.ac.uk:8080/download/attachments/748/ Brief7finalised1.pdf), accessed 20 September 2007.
97. F. Grare, 'The resurgence of Baluch nationalism', South Asia Project No 65, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, January 2006, (http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/CP65.Grare.FINAL.pdf), accessed 20 September 2007.
98. Khan, op cit, Ref 80.
99. T. Niazi, 'Baluchistan in the shadow of al-Qaeda', Terrorism Monitor Vol 4, No 4, 23 February 2006, p 4 (http://www.jamestown.org/ terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2369909), accessed 20 September 2007.
100. B. Raman, 'Musharraf seeks Taliban help against Balochs', South Asia Analysis Group, Paper no. 1938, October 2006, (http://www.saag.org/ papers20/paper1938.html), accessed 20 September 2007.
101. South Asia Terrorism Portal, (http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/ pakistan/index.htm), accessed 20 September 2007.
102. This is based on research conducted by the South Asia Terrorism Portal. According to this research there were 160 people killed by 3 September 2006, in contrast to 79 reported deaths this year at the same point. See South Asia Terrorism Portal, (http://satp.org/satporgtp/countries/ pakistan/Balochistan/data/2006.htm), accessed 20 September 2007.
103. S.S. Hasan, 'Pakistan agent held over 'bomb'', BBC News, 7 December 2006, (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/ 6217332.stm], accessed 20 September 2007.
104. D. Gardner, 'The general and the west: How Pakistan is being lost', Financial Times, 3 August 2007, p 11.
105. A. Yusufzai, 'PAKISTAN: Suicide bombings demoralise security forces', Inter Press Service, 20 July 2007, (http://www.ipsnews.net/ news.asp?idnews=38609], accessed 20 September 2007.
106. Certainly declassified material from the state department dated September 2000 suggests that, 'while Pakistani support for the Taliban has been long-standing, the magnitude of recent support is unprecedented'. Such support is believed to have comprised of 'materiel, fuel, funding, technical assistance, and military advisors' as well as 'large numbers of Pakistani nationals' that 'have recently moved into Afghanistan to fight for the Taliban, apparently with the tacit acquiescence of the Pakistani government'. See The George Washington University, National Security Archive, (http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/ NSAEBB/NSAEBB227/34.pdf), accessed 29 August 2007.
107. '[T]he Lashkar-e-Tayyaba (LET), the Jaish-e-Muhammad (JEM), the Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP), the Tehreek-e-Jafferia Pakistan (TJP) and the Tehreek-e-Nifaz-e-Shariat-e-Muhammadi (TNSM)' were proscribed in 2002. With the exception of the Shia Tehreek-e-Jafferia Pakistan, these groups had a 'strong Deobandi-Wahabi orientation'. See B. Raman, 'Musharraf's ban: An analysis', South Asia Analysis Group Paper, 18 January 2002, (http://www.saag.org/papers4/paper395.html), accessed 3 July 2007.
108. A. Mir, 'Pakistan's sectarian monster', Asia Times, 8 June 2005, (http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GF08Df01.html), accessed 3 July 2007.
109. S. Irfani, 'Pakistan's sectarian violence: Between the "Arabist Shift" and Indo-Persian culture', Religious Radicalism & Security In South Asia (Honalulu, HI: Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies, 2004), p 168.
110. For example, Akram Lahori, one of the founding leaders of the armed group Lashkar-e-Jhangvi, is currently in prison.
111. See N.C. Behera, 'Kashmir: Redefining the U.S. role', Brookings Policy Paper, October 2002, (http://www.brookings.edu/comm/policybriefs/ pb110.htm), accessed 3 July 2007
112. F. Ali, 'Inside Pakistan's Madrasas', Terrorism Focus, Vol 3, No 1, 9 January 2006, p 5 (http://jamestown.org/terrorism/news/ article.php?articleid=2369861], accessed 3 July 2007
113. J. Lakshman, 'The darkness of "enlightened moderation'", South Asia Intelligence Review, Vol 4, No. 1, 18 July 2005, (http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/sair/Archives/4_1.htm#ASSESSMENT1], accessed 3 July 2007.
114. S. Ahmed, 'Testimony on Madrasas and U.S. Aid to Pakistan before the U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on National Security and Foreign Affairs, Samina Ahmed', International Crisis Group, (http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=4827&1=1), accessed 3 July 2007.
115. T.C. Schaffer, 'Schaffer: Pakistan facing question on how to handle extremists', Council on Foreign Relations, 8 August 2007, (http://www.cfr.org/publication/14005/schaffer.html?breadcrumb= %2Fregion%2F283%2Fpakistan], accessed 18 August 2007.
116. A.H. Khan, 'Pakistan's heart of darkness', Asia Times, 22 August 2002, (http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/DH22Df03.html), accessed 3 July 2007.
117. K. Clarke, 'UN quake aid went to extremists', BBC News, 5 October 2006, (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/5402756.stm), accessed 3 July 2007.
118. H. Abbas, 'The road to Lal Masjid and its aftermath', Terrorism Monitor, Vol 5, No 14, 19 July 2007, p 6 (http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/ article.php?articleid=2373563), accessed 3 July 2007.
119. P. Hoodbhoy, Pakistan: The threat from within, Brief No 13, Pakistan Security Research Unit, 23 May 2007, (http://spaces.brad.ac.uk:8080/download/attachments/748/ Brief+number+13.pdf), accessed 3 July 2007.
120. H.A. Rizvi, 'Lal Masjid: FAQs', Daily Times, 15 July 2007, (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp? page=2007%5C07%5C15%5Cstory_15-7-2007_pg3_2], accessed 25 July 2007
121. Abbas, op cit, Ref 100.
122. 'CHRONOLOGY-Bomb attacks in Pakistan after mosque seige', Reuters, (http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSISL28758), accessed 19 July 2007.
123. I. Khan, in Special Correspondent, 'Extremism can be politically handled, says Imran', The Dawn, 11 July 2007, (http://www.dawn.com/2007/07/11/top7.htm), accessed 3 July 2007.
124. I.D. Pal, 'The Lal Masjid episode and the military', The Dawn, 14 July 2007, (http://www.dawn.com/weekly/encounter/20070714/ encounter3.htm), accessed 3 July 2007.
125. O. Roy, 'Pakistan and the Taliban', (http://www.cerisciencespo.com/ archive/octo00/artor.pdf), accessed 3 July 2007.
126. J. Husain, 'Threat of Talibanisation', The Dawn, 19 June 2007, (http://www.dawn.com/2007/06/29/op.htm), accessed 3 July 2007.
127. 'EDITORIAL. Bending the knee to Talibanisation', The Daily Times, June 25, 2007, (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2007/06/ 24/story_24-6-2007_pg3_1), accessed 3 July 2007.
128. Ibid.
129. J. Perlez and I. Khan, 'Taliban spreading, Pakistani President is warned', The New York Times, 30 June 2007, (http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/30/world/asia/30pakistan.html?_r= 1&oref=slogin&pagewanted=print], accessed 16 August 2007.
130. Certainly this was suggested by Javid Husain, who stated 'The problem of creeping Talibanisation, thus, can be directly traced to Pakistan's policy of support to the Taliban pursued from 1995 to 2001 with scant regard to its dangerous repercussions for Pakistan at the international, regional and national levels'. See Husain, op cit, Ref 107.
131. Ibid.
132. One account cites the following as being in the MMA manifesto: '... ensure provision of roti, kapra aur makan, besides health and education facilities for every citizen and will withdraw all "unjust" taxes... elimination of feudalism and distribution of state land among landless peasants... Industrial labourers will be ensured their share in factories with increase in their wages and fringe benefits, while their employment will be given protection. They will also be given the right to associate and protest... across the board accountability of rulers, elected representatives, judiciary, armed forces and administration... Every individual will be guaranteed provision of basic rights, and protection from state violence, oppression and corruption... the MMA will check the illegal use of national kitty and resources and put an end to overspending... It will also ensure just distribution of wealth and check concentration of money in a few hands'.
133. See A. Mahmood, 'MMA promises roti, kapra, makan', The Dawn, 25 August 2002, (http://www.dawn.com/2002/08/25/local50.htm), accessed 16 August 2007.
134. See I. Talbot, 'Pakistan in 2002: Democracy, terrorism and brinkmanship', Asian Survey, Vol 43, No. 1, Jan-Feb 2003, p 204
135. Haqqani, op cit, Ref 4, p 149.
136. Columnist Tahir Mashhadi suggested: 'The selective implementation of the ban on political activity is hard for the people to understand and greatly erodes the regime's credibility While the ban on mainstream political parties is strictly enforced, the religious parties and groups mobilizing substantial number of people mostly alien Afghan refugees and students from the madrassas are permitted to hold their meetings, processions and demonstrations all over the country'. See T. Mashhadi, 'The fundamentalist quandary', Defence Journal, November 2001, (http://www.defencejournal.com/2001/november/contentsnov2001.htm), accessed 16 August 2007.
137. K. Mohammad, 'AG given 12 days to reply in MMA MPs' case', Daily Times, 9 May 2003, (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/ default.asp?page=story_9-5-2003_pg7_39), accessed 16 August 2007
138. Abbas, op cit, Ref 26.
139. M. Babbar, 'PPP seeks extension of political parties act to Fata', The Post, 14 October 2007, (http://www.thepost.com.pk/ IsbNewsT.aspx?dtlid=123413&catid=17], accessed 14 October 2007.
140. Certainly Mir suggests that 'The surprise rise of the religious right in the 2002 elections in Pakistan was attributable to the encouragement of the Musharraf regime. The Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal (MMA) has a special relationship with the military by sustaining the latter's Afghan and Kashmir policies. The MMA provides Islamabad an alibi to argue that it cannot moderate its policies in Kashmir to the degree that Washington desires'. See A. Mir, 'Deadly double game. The true face of Jehadis: inside Pakistan's network of terror', Asia Times, 26 August 2006, (http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/HH26Df01.html), accessed 16 August 2006
141. Haqqani, op cit, Ref 4, p 320
142. A. Amir, 'March of the clerics (and other stories)', The Dawn, 18 October 2002, (http://www.dawn.com/weekly/ayaz/20021018.htm), accessed 16 August 2007.
143. One could argue that US donor aid has helped here; however, the vast majority of the funding is security assistance funding, with development assistance a mere 9% of the non-classified support that totalled $10 billion circa spring 2007. See C. Cohen and D. Chollet, 'When $10 billion is not enough: Rethinking U.S. strategy towards Pakistan', The Washington Quarterly, Spring 2007, pp 11-15.
144. 'Pakistan Country Overview 2006', The World Bank, September 2006, (http://www.worldbank.org.pk/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHA SIAEXT/ PAKISTANEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20131431~menuPK:293059~pagePK:141137~piPK: 141127~theSitePK:293052,00.html), accessed 16 August 2007.
145. S. Abbas and S. O'Connor, 'Pakistan at a glance', New Statesman, Vol. 136, No. 4842, 30 April 2007.
146. 'Chapter 2. Rural Poverty in Pakistan', 'Pakistan: Promoting Rural Growth and Poverty Reduction', April 2007. The World Bank, (http://www.worldbank.org.pk/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/ PAKISTANEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21309038~pagePK:141137~piPK: 141127~theSitePK:293052,00.html), accessed 16 August 2007.
147. The World Bank also suggests that 'longer-term trends (1998-99 to
148. Ibid.
149. R.M. Hathaway, 'Leverage and largesse: Pakistan's post-9/11 partnership with America', Contemporary South Asia, Vol 16, No 1, March 2008.
150. M.A. Khan, We've learnt nothing form History - Pakistan: Politics and Military Power (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p 255.
151. A. Siddiqa, 'Soldiers of fortune', Newsline, December 2006, (http://www.newsline.com.pk/NewsDec2006/cover1dec2006.htm), accessed 16 August 2007.
152. By Siddiqa's own admission determining the exact scale of the military empire is difficult because of the multilayered nature of business conglomerates and the lack of transparency. See Siddiqa, op cit, Ref 54.
153. Ibid, pp 248-249.
154. Presidential hopeful Barack Obama 'said he would use military force if necessary against al-Qaeda in Pakistan even without Pakistan's consent'. See 'Obama warns Pakistan on al-Qaeda', BBC News, (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/6926663.stm), accessed 16 August 2007.