Ecological integrity of remnant montane forests along an urban gradient in the Sierra Nevada

Forest Ecology and Management

Volumn 255, Issue 7, 2008, Pages 2453-2466

  Heckmann, K E ^a   Manley, P N ^b   Schlesinger, M D ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b Sierra Nevada Research Center   (United States)

Author keywords

Exotic plant species; Lake Tahoe; Montane forest structure; Sierra Nevada; Snags and logs; Urban gradient

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; ECOSYSTEMS; VEGETATION;

ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY; EXOTIC PLANT SPECIES; LAKE TAHOE; MONTANE FOREST STRUCTURE; URBAN GRADIENTS;

FORESTRY;

ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECT; ECOLOGICAL IMPACT; ECOSYSTEM HEALTH; INVASIVE SPECIES; MONTANE FOREST; NATURE CONSERVATION; SNAG; SPECIES RICHNESS; STAND STRUCTURE; URBAN PLANNING; URBANIZATION;

BIODIVERSITY; ECOSYSTEMS; FORESTS; PINUS WASHOENSIS; PLANTS;

CALIFORNIA; LAKE TAHOE; NORTH AMERICA; SIERRA NEVADA [CALIFORNIA]; UNITED STATES;

EID: 41949139865     PISSN: 03781127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2008.01.005     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. Adams L. Urban Wildlife Habitats (1994), University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN p. 160
2. Agee J.K., and Skinner C.N. Basic principles of forest fuel reduction treatments. Forest Ecol. Manage. 211 (2005) 83-96
3. Airola T., and Buchholz K. Species structure and soil characteristics of five urban sites along the New Jersey Palisades. Urban Ecol. 8 (1984) 149-164
4. Alberti M., and Marzluff J.M. Ecological resilience in urban ecosystems: linking urban patterns to human and ecological functions. Urban Ecosyst. 7 (2004) 241-265
5. Bagnall R. A study of human impact on an urban forest remnant: redwood bush, Tawa, near Wellington, New Zealand. N. Z. J. Bot. 17 (1979) 117-126
6. Barbour M., Fernau R., Benayas J.R., Jurjavicic N., and Royce E. Tree regeneration following clearcut logging in red fir forests of California. Forest Ecol. Manage. 104 (1998) 101-111
7. Barbour M., Kelley E., Maloney P., Rizzo D., Royce E., and Fites-Kaufmann J. Present and past old-growth forests of the Lake Tahoe Basin, Sierra, Nevada, US. J. Veg. Sci. 13 (2002) 461-472
8. Baxter J., Pickett S., Carreiro M., and Dighton J. Ectomycorrhizal diversity and community structure in oak forest stands exposed to contrasting anthropogenic impacts. Can. J. Bot. 77 (1999) 771-782
9. Beers T., Dress P., and Wensel L. Aspect transformation in site productivity research. J. Forestry 64 (1966) 691-692
10. Berger W.H., and Parker F.L. Diversity of planktonic Foraminifera in deep sea sediments. Science 168 (1970) 1345-1347
11. Birks H. Statistical approaches to interpreting diversity patterns in the Norwegian mountain flora. Ecography 19 (1996) 332-340
12. Blewett C.M., and Marzluff J.M. Effects of urban sprawl on snags and the abundance and productivity of cavity-nesting birds. Condor 107 (2005) 687-693
13. Borcard D., Legendre P., and Drapeau P. Partialling out the spatial component of ecological variation. Ecology 73 (1992) 1045-1055
14. Brunner A., and Kimmins J. Nitrogen fixation in coarse woody debris of Thuja plicata and Tsuga heterophylla forests on northern Vancouver Island. Can. J. Forest Res. 33 (2003) 1670-1682
15. Bull, E., 2002. The value of coarse woody debris to vertebrates in the Pacific Northwest. In: Laudenslayer, W., Shea, P., Valentine, B., Weatherspoon P., Lisle, T. (Tech. Coords.), Proceedings of the Symposium on the Ecology and Management of Dead Wood in Western Forests. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-GTR-181, pp. 171-178.
16. Bull, E.L., Parks, C.G., Torgensen, T.R., 1997. Trees and logs important to wildlife in the interior Columbia River Basin. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-GTR-391, p. 55.
17. Chape S., Harrison J., Spaulding M., and Lysenko I. Measuring the extent and effectiveness of protected areas as an indicator for meeting global biodiversity targets. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 360 (2005) 443-455
18. Colfer C.J.P. The Complex Forest: Communities, Uncertainty, and Adaptive Collaborative Management (2005), Resources for the Future Press, Washington, DC p. 363
19. Collins B.M., Moghaddas J.J., and Stephens S.L. Initial changes in forest structure and understory plant communities following fuel reduction activities in a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecol. Manage. 239 (2007) 102-111
20. Crist E.P., and Cicone R.C. Application of the Tasseled Cap concept to simulated Thematic Mapper data. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing 50 (1984) 343-352
21. Daly C., Gibson W.P., Taylor G.H., Johnson G.L., and Pasteris P.A. A knowledge-based approach to the statistical mapping of climate. Climate Res. 22 (2002) 99-113. http://www.ocs.orst.edu/prism/ http://www.ocs.orst.edu/prism/
22. Debinski D., and Holt R. A survey and overview of habitat fragmentation experiments. Conserv. Biol. 14 (1998) 342-355
23. Dobrowski S.Z., Greenberg J.A., Ustin S.L., 2005. Tahoe basin existing vegetation map v. 4.1 [digital map layer accessed 03/07/2005] URL: http://casil.ucdavis.edu/projects/tbevm
24. Duane, T.P., 1996. Human settlement, 1850-2040. In: Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project, Final Report to Congress, vol. II, Assessments and scientific basis for management options. Centers for Water and Wildland Resources, Report No. 37, University of California, Davis, CA, pp. 235-360.
25. Elliot-Fisk, D., Cahill, T., Davis, O., Duan, L., Goldman, C., Gruell, G., Harris, R., Kattelmann, R., Lacey, R., Leisz, D., Lindström, S., Machida, D., Rowntree, R., Rucks, P., Sharkey, D., Stephens, S., Ziegler, D., 1996. Lake Tahoe case study. In: Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project, Final Report to Congress, vol. III, Centers for Water and Wildland Resources, Report No. 40. University of California, Davis, CA, pp. 217-276.
26. Eriksson O., and Ehrlen J. Landscape fragmentation and the viability of plant populations. In: Silvertown J., and Antonovics J. (Eds). Integrating Ecology and Evolution in a Spatial Context (2001), Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, England 157-175
27. Ferrell, G., 1996. The influence of insect pests and pathogens in the Sierra forests. In Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project, Final Report to Congress, vol. III, Centers for Water and Wildland Resources, Report No. 40. University of California, Davis, CA, pp. 1172-1192.
28. Folke C., Hahn T., Olsson P., and Norberg J. Adaptive governance of social-ecological systems. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 30 (2005) 441-473
29. Forest Inventory and Analysis. Forest Inventory and Analysis National core field guide, vol. I, field data collection for Phase 2 plots, Version 2. 0. (2002), USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC p. 203
30. Fraterrigo J.M., and Wiens J.A. Bird communities of the Colorado Rocky Mountains along a gradient of exurban development. Landsc. Urban Plan. 71 (2005) 263-275
31. Garrison G. Uses and modifications for the 'Moosehorn' crown closure estimator. J. Forestry 47 (1949) 733-735
32. Gilbert O.L. The Ecology of Urban Habitats. 2nd ed. (1991), Chapman and Hall, London, England p. 384
33. Godefroid S., and Koedam N. Identifying indicator plant species of habitat quality and invisibility as a guide for peri-urban forest management. Biodivers. Conserv. 12 (2003) 1699-1713
34. Grimm N.B., Baker L.J., and Hope D. An ecosystem approach to understanding cities: Familiar foundations and uncharted frontiers. In: Berkowitz A.R., Hollweg K., and Nilon C.H. (Eds). Understanding Urban Ecosystems: A New Frontier for Science and Education (2003), Springer-Verlag, New York, NY 95-114
35. Hansen A.J., Knight R.L., Marzluff J.M., Powell S., Brown K., Gude P.H., and Jones K. Effects of exurban development on biodiversity: patterns, mechanism, and research needs. Ecol. Appl. 15 (2005) 1893-1905
36. Hector A., and Baqchi R. Biodiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality. Nature 448 (2007) 188-190
37. Hill M., Roy D., and Thompson K. Hemeroby, urbanity and ruderality: bioindicators of disturbance and human impact. J. Appl. Ecol. 39 (2002) 708-720
38. Hobbs E. Using ordination to analyze the composition and structure of urban forest islands. Forest Ecol. Manage. 23 (1988) 139-158
39. Hobbs R., and Huenneke L. Disturbance, diversity, and invasion: implications for conservation. Conserv. Biol. 6 (1992) 324-337
40. Honnay O., Verheyen K., Butave J., Jacquemyn H., Bossuvt B., and Hermy M. Possible effects of habitat fragmentation and climate change on the range of forest plant species. Ecol. Lett. 5 (2002) 525-530
41. Hooper D.U., Chapin III F.S., Ewel J.J., Hector A., Inchausti P., Lavorel S., Lawton J.H., Lodge D.M., Loreau M., Naeem S., Schmid B., Setälä H., Symstad A.J., Vandermeer J., and Wardle D.A. Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning. Ecol. Monogr. 75 (2005) 3-35
42. Hope D., Gries C., Casagrande D., Redman C.L., Grimm N.B., and Martin C. Drivers of spatial variation in plant diversity across the central Arizona - Phoenix ecosystem. Society Nat. Resour. 19 (2006) 101-116
43. Hunter Jr. M.L. A mesofilter conservation strategy to complement fine and coarse filters. Conserv. Biol. 19 (2005) 1025-1029
44. Jacquemyn H., Butave J., and Hermy M. Forest plant species richness in small, fragmented mixed deciduous forest patches: the role of area, time and dispersal limitation. J. Biogeogr. 28 (2001) 801-812
45. Jean M., and Bouchard A. Riverine wetland vegetation: importance of small-scale and large-scale environmental variation. J. Veg. Sci. 4 (1993) 609-620
46. Jennings S.B., Brown N.D., and Sheil D. Assessing forest canopies and understory illumination: canopy closure, canopy cover and other measures. Forestry 72 (1999) 59-73
47. In: Karnosky D.F., Ceulemans R., Scarascia-Mugnozza G.E., and Innes J.L. (Eds). The Impact of Carbon dioxide and Other Greenhouse Gasses on Forest Ecosystems (2001), CABI Publishing, New York, NY 341
48. Karr J.R., and Dudley D.R. Ecological perspective on water quality goals. Environ. Manage. 5 (1981) 55-68
49. Keeley J.E., Lubin D., and Fotheringham C.J. Fire and grazing impacts on plant diversity and aliean plant invasions in the southern Sierra Nevada. Ecol. Appl. 13 (2003) 1355-1374
50. Kittel T.G.F. Effects of climate variability on herbaceous phenology and observed species richness in temperate montane habitats, Lake Tahoe basin, Nevada. Madroño 45 (1998) 75-84
51. Kowarik I. On the role of alien species in urban flora and vegetation. In: Pysek P., Prach K., Rejmanek M., and Wade P.M. (Eds). Plant Invasions - General Aspects and Special Problems (1995), SPB Academic, Amsterdam 85-103
52. Kremen C., and Ostfeld R.S. A call to ecologists: measuring, analyzing, and managing ecosystem services. Front. Ecol. Environ. 3 (2005) 540-548
53. Lambers H., Chapin III F., and Pons T. Plant Physiological Ecology (1998), Springer-Verlag, New York, NY p. 540
54. Lindgren, B., MacIssac, A., 2002. A preliminary study of ant diversity and of ant dependence on dead wood in central interior British Colombia. In: Laudenslayer, W., Shea, P., Valentine, B., Weatherspoon P., Lisle, T. (Tech. Coords.), Proceedings of the Symposium on the Ecology and Management of Dead Wood in Western Forests. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-GTR-181, pp. 111-119.
55. Lindström, S., 2000. A contextual overview of human land use and environmental conditions. In: Murphy, D.D., Knopp, C.M. (Eds.), Lake Tahoe Watershed Assessment, vol. I, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-GTR-175, pp. 23-130.
56. Lovett G., Traynor M., Pouyat R., Carreiro M., Zhu W., and Baxter J. Atmospheric deposition to oak forests along an urban-rural gradient. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34 (2000) 4294-4300
57. Lyons K.G., Brighan C.A., Traut B.H., and Schwartz M.W. Rare species and ecosystem functioning. Conserv. Biol. 19 (2005) 1019-1024
58. Lyons K.G., and Schwartz M.S. Rare species loss alters ecosystem function - invasion resistance. Ecol. Lett. 4 (2001) 358-365
59. Machmer, M., 2002. Effects of ecosystem restoration treatments on cavity-nesting birds, their habitat, and their insectivorous prey in fire-maintained forests of Southeastern British Colombia. In: Laudenslayer, W., Shea, P., Valentine, B., Weatherspoon P., Lisle, T. (Tech. Coords.), Proceedings of the Symposium on the Ecology and Management of Dead Wood in Western Forests. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-GTR-181, pp. 121-133.
60. Maguire, C.C., 2002. Dead wood and the richness of small terrestrial vertebrates in southwestern Oregon. In: Laudenslayer, W., Shea, P., Valentine, B., Weatherspoon P., Lisle, T. (Tech. Coords.), Proceedings of the Symposium on the Ecology and Management of Dead Wood in Western Forests. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-GTR-181, pp. 331-345.
61. Magurran A. Measuring Biological Diversity (2004), Blackwell Science Ltd., Malden, MA p. 256
62. Maloney P., and Rizzo D. Pathogens and insects in a pristine forest ecosystem: the Sierra San Pedro Martir, Baja, Mexico. Can. J. Forestry Res. 32 (2002) 448-457
63. Mandryk A.M., and Wein R.W. Exotic vascular plant invasiveness and forest invasibility in urban boreal forest types. Biol. Invasions 8 (2006) 1651-1662
64. Manley, P., Fites-Kauffman, J., Barbour, M., Schlesinger, M., Rizzo, D., 2000. Biological Integrity. In: Murphy, D.D., Knopp, C.M. (Eds.), Lake Tahoe Watershed Assessment, vol. I, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-GTR-175, pp. 403-433.
65. Manley P., Murphy D., Campbell L., Heckmann K., Merideth S., Parks S., Sanford M., and Schlesinger M. Biotic diversity interfaces with urbanization in the Lake Tahoe Basin. Calif. Agric. 60 (2006) 59-64
66. Maser C., Anderson R.G., Cromack K., Williams J.T., and Martin R.E. Dead and down woody material. In: Thomas J.W. (Ed). Wildlife Habitats in Managed Forests: the Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington (1979), Agriculture Handbook 553. U.S Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 78-95
67. Matlack G.R. Sociological edge effects: spatial distribution of human impact in suburban forest fragments. Environ. Manage. 17 (1993) 829-835
68. May R.M. Patterns of species abundance and diversity. In: Cody M.L., and Diamond J.M. (Eds). Ecology and Evolution of Communities (1975), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 81-120
69. McBride J., and Jacobs D. Urban forest structure: a key to urban forest planning. Calif. Agric. 33 (1979) 24
70. McBride J., and Jacobs D. Presettlement forest structure as a factor in urban forest development. Urban Ecol. 9 (1986) 245-266
71. McCune B., and Grace J. Analysis of Ecological Communities (2002), MjM Software Design, Gleneden Beach, OR p. 300
72. McCune B., and Keon D. Equations for potential annual direct incident radiation and heat load. J. Veg. Sci. 13 (2002) 603-606
73. McDonnell M., and Pickett S. Ecosystem structure and function along urban-rural gradients: an unexploited opportunity for ecology. Ecology 71 (1990) 1232-1237
74. McKelvey, K.S., Johnson, J.D., 1992. Historical perspectives on forests of the Sierra Nevada and the transverse ranges of Southern California. In: Verner, J., McKelvey, K.S., Noon, B.R., Gutierrez, R.J., Gould, G.I., Beck, T.W., (Tech. Coords.), The California Spotted Owl: A Technical Assessment of its Current Status. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-GTR-133, pp. 225-246.
75. McKelvey, K.S.; Skinner, C.N.; Chang, C.; Erman, D.C.; Husari, S.J.; Parsons, D.J.; van Wagtendonk, J.W.; Weatherspoon, C.P. 1996. An overview of fire in the Sierra Nevada. In: Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project: Final report to Congress, vol. II. Assessments and Scientific Basis for Management Options. Water Resources Center Report No. 37. Centers for Water and Wildland Resources, University of California, Davis, CA, pp. 1033-1040.
76. McKinney M.L. Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation. Bioscience 52 (2002) 883-890
77. McKinney M.L. Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization. Biol. Conserv. 127 (2006) 247-260
78. Nelson G.C., Bennett E., Berhe A., Cassman K., DeFries R., Dietz T., Dobermann A., Dobson A., Janetos A., Levy M., Marco D., Nakicenovic N., O'Neill B., Norgaard R., Petschel-Held G., Ojima D., Pingali P., Watson R., and Zurek M. Anthropogenic drivers of ecosystem change: an overview. Ecol. Soc. 11 2 (2006) 29. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss2/art29/
79. Ohmann J., and Spies T. Regional gradient analysis and spatial pattern of woody plant communities of Oregon forests. Ecol. Monogr. 68 (1998) 151-182
80. Okland R., and Eilertsen O. Canonical analysis with variation partitioning: some comments and an application. J. Veg. Sci. 5 (1994) 117-126
81. O'Toole, R., 2007. Big government, big fire. American Spectator, July 9, 2007.
82. Palmer, M., 2005. Variance explained and variance partitioning in CCA. Website: Ordination methods for ecologists. URL: http://www.ordination.okstate.edu
83. Parrish J.D., Braun D.P., and Unnasch R.S. Are we conserving what we say we are? Measuring ecological integrity within protected areas. Bioscience 53 (2003) 851-860
84. Passovoy A.D., and Fule P.Z. Snag and woody debris dynamics following severe wildfires in northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests. Forest Ecol. Manage. 223 (2006) 237-246
85. Pearson R.G., and Dawson T.P. Long-distance plant dispersal and habitat fragmentation: identifying conservation targets for spatial landscape planning under climate change. Biol. Conserv. 123 (2005) 389-401
86. Pyke C.R. The implications of global priorities for biodiversity and ecosystem services associated with protected areas. Ecol. Soc. 12 1 (2007) 4. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art4/
87. Rudnicky J., and McDonnell M. Forty-eight years of canopy change in a hardwood-hemlock forest in New York City. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 116 (1989) 52-64
88. Sanders R.A. Some determinants of urban forest structure. Urban Ecol. 8 (1984) 13-27
89. SAS Institute Incorporated. 2002. JMP, Version 5. Cary, NC.
90. Saunders D., Hobbs R., and Margules C. Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: a review. Conserv. Biol. 5 (1991) 18-32
91. In: Schultz E.D., and Mooney H.A. (Eds). Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function (1994), Springer, New York, NY 528
92. Schwartz M.W., Thorne J.H., and Viers J.H. Biotic homogenization of the California flora in urban and urbanizing regions. Biol. Conserv. 127 (2006) 282-291
93. Seabloom E.W., Williams J.W., Slayback D., Stoms D.M., Viers J.H., and Dobson A.P. Human impacts, plant invasion, and imperiled plant species in California. Ecol. Appl. 16 (2006) 1338-1350
94. Skinner, C.A., 2002. Influence of fire on the dynamics of dead woody material in forests of California and southwestern Oregon. In: Laudenslayer, W., Shea, P., Valentine, B., Weatherspoon P., Lisle, T. (Tech. Coords.), Proceedings of the Symposium on the Ecology and Management of Dead Wood in Western Forests. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-GTR-181, pp. 445-454.
95. Sokal R.R., and Rohlf F.J. Biometry. 3rd ed. (1994), W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, NY p. 880
96. Soule M.E., Alberts A.C., and Bolger D.T. The effects of habitat fragmentation on chaparral plants and vertebrates. Oikos 63 (1992) 39-47
97. Stephens S.L. Fuel loads, snag density, and snag recruitment in an unmanaged Jeffrey pine-mixed conifer forest in northwestern Mexico. Forest Ecol. Manage. 199 (2004) 103-113
98. Stephens S.L., and Gill S.J. Forest structure and mortality in an old-growth Jeffrey pine-mixed conifer forest in northwestern Mexico. Forest Ecol. Manage. 205 (2005) 15-28
99. Stephens S.L., and Moghaddas J.J. Fuel treatment effects on snags and coarse woody debris in a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecol. Manage. 214 (2005) 53-64
100. Stephens S.L., and Ruth L.W. Federal forest-fire policy in the United States. Ecol. Appl. 15 (2005) 532-542
101. Stohlgren T.J., Barnett D.T., and Kartesz J.T. The rich get richer: patterns of plant invasions in the United States. Front. Ecol. Environ. 1 (2003) 11-14
102. Stohlgren T.J., Binkley D., Chong G.W., Kalkhan M.A., Schell L.D., Bull K.A., Otsuki Y., Newman G., Bashkin M., and Son Y. Exotic plant species invade hot spots of native plant diversity. Ecol. Monogr. 69 (1999) 25-46
103. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency, 2002. Vegetation. 2001 Threshold Evaluation Report, pp. 5-10, Chapter 5.
104. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency, 2004. Conservation element. Regional Plan for the Lake Tahoe Basin: Goals and Policies, pp. IV-3-IV-9, Chapter 4.
105. Taylor A.H. Identifying forest reference conditions in early cut-over lands, Lake Tahoe Basin, USA. Ecol. Appl. 14 (2004) 1903-1920
106. ter Braak, C.J.F., Smilauer, P., 2002. CANOCO Reference Manual and CanoDraw for Windows User's Guide: Software for Canonical Community Ordination, version 4.5. Ithaca, NY: Microcomputer Power (http://www.canoco.com), p. 500.
107. Theobald D.M. Placing exurban land-use change in a human modification framework. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2 (2004) 139-144
108. Theobald D.M. Landscape patterns of exurban growth in the USA from 1980 to 2020. Ecol. Soc. 10 1 (2005) 32. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol10/iss1/art32/
109. Thomas, J.W., Anderson, R.G., Maser, C., Bull, E.L., 1979. Snags. In: Thomas, J.W. (Tech. Ed.), Wildlife Habitats in Managed Forests: The Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington. Agric. Handbook 553. Washington, DC, pp. 60-77.
110. Tyrväinen L., Silvennoinen H., and Kolehmainen O. Ecological and aesthetic values in urban forestry. Urban Forestry Urban Greening 1 (2003) 135-149
111. Vitousek P. Biological invasions and ecosystem properties: can species make a difference?. In: Mooney H.A., and Drake J.A. (Eds). Ecology of Biological Invasions of North America and Hawaii (1986), Springer, New York, NY 63-176
112. Waddell K.L. Sampling coarse woody debris for multiple attributes in extensive resource inventories. Ecol. Indicators 1 (2002) 139-153
113. Walker B., Kinzig A., and Langridge J. Plant attribute diversity, resilience, and ecosystem function: the nature and significance of dominant and minor species. Ecosystems 2 (1999) 95-113
114. Walker B., Holling C.S., Carpenter S.R., and Kinzig A. Resilience, adaptability and transformability in social-ecological systems. Ecol. Soc. 9 2 (2004) 5. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art5/
115. World Commission on Forests and Sustainable Development. Our Forests, Our Future (1999), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK p. 200
116. Yaacobi G., Ziv Y., and Rosenzweig M.L. Habitat fragmentation may not matter to species diversity. Proc. R. Bot. Soc. 274 (2007) 2409-2412
117. Yongblood A., Max T., and Coe K. Stand structure in eastside old-growth ponderosa pine forests. Forest Ecol. Manage. 199 (2004) 191-217
118. Zielonka T., and Piatek G. The herb and dwarf shrubs colonization of decaying logs in subalpine forest in the Polish Tatra Mountains. Plant Ecol. 172 (2004) 63-72