The effect of increased women's representation in parliament: The case of Rwanda

Parliamentary Affairs

Volumn 61, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 237-254

  Devlin, Claire ^a   Elgie, Robert ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 41849094764     PISSN: 00312290     EISSN: 14602482     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/pa/gsn007     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. This figure is calculated by the Inter-Parliamentary Union as reported on 5 February 2007. (Visit http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm).
2. S. Childs, 'In Their Own Words: New Labour Women, MPs and the Substantive Representation of Women', British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 3(2), 2001, p. 174.
3. F. McKay, 'The Zero Tolerance Campaign: Setting the Agenda' in J. Lovenduski and P. Norris (eds), Women in Politics, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 208.
4. G. Waylen, 'Analysing women in the politics of the Third World' in H. Afshar (ed.), Women and Politics in the Third World, Routledge, 1, 9, 96, pp. 6-24;
5. S. Rai, 'Gender and Democratization: Or What Does Democracy Mean for Women in the Third World?', Democratization, 1(2), 1994, pp. 209-28.
6. J. Squires and M. Wickham-Jones, 'Women in Parliament: A Comparative Analysis', Equal Opportunities Commission, 2001, pp. 88-99.
7. D. Sainsbury, 'Women's Political Representation, in Sweden: Discursive Politics and Institutional Presence', Scandinavian Political Studies, 27(1), 2004, pp. 65-87.
8. D. Dahlerup, 'From a Small to a Large Minority: Women in Scandinavian Politics', Scandinavian Political Studies, 11(4), 1988, p. 296.
9. L. Wängnerud, 'Representing Women', pp. 132-54 in P. Esaisson and K. Heidar (eds), Beyond Westminster and Congress: The Nordic Experience, Ohio State University Press, 2000, pp. 146-48.
10. See G. Bauer, '"The Hand That Stirs the Pot can Also Run The Country": Electing the Women to Parliament in Namibia', Journal of Modern African Studies, 42(4), 2004, pp. 479-509;
11. G. Geisler, '"A Second, Liberation": Lobbying for Women's Political Representation, in Zambia, Botswana and Namibia', Journal of Southern African Studies, 32(1), 2006, pp. 69-84;
12. S. Tamale, '"Point of Order, Mr Speaker": African Women Claiming Their Space in Parliament', Gender And Development, 8(3), 2000, pp. 8-15;
13. M. Y. Yoon and S. Bunwaree, 'Women's Legislative Representation in Mauritius: "A Grave Democratic Deficit"', Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 24(2), 2006, pp. 229-47.
14. G. Bauer and H.E Britton, 'Women in African Parliaments: A Continental Shift?' in G. Bauer and H.E. Britton (eds), Women in African Parliaments, Lynne Rienner, 2006, p. 2.
15. Ibid., p. 18.
16. Ibid., pp. 18-20.
17. Ibid., p. 20.
18. H.E. Britton, 'South Africa: Mainstreaming Gender in a New Democracy' in G. Bauer and H.E. Britton (eds) 2006, Women in African Parliaments, Lynne Rienner, 2006, pp. 59-84;
19. K. Ross, 'Women's Place in "Male" Space: Gender and Effect in Parliamentary Contexts', Parliamentary Affairs, 55, 2002, pp. 189-201.
20. S. Meintjes, 'The Politics of Engagement: Women Transforming the Policy process-Domestic Violence Legislation in South Africa' in A.M. Goetz and S. Hassim (eds), No Shortcuts to Power. African Women in Politics and Policy Making, Z, ed Books, 2003, pp. 140-59.
21. G. Bauer, 'Namibia: Losing Ground Without Mandatory Quotas' in G. Bauer and H.E. Britton (eds), 2006, Women in African Parliaments, Lynne Rienner, 2006, p. 100.
22. Ibid., p. 104.
23. Ibid., p. 107.
24. J.L. Disney, 'Mozambique: Empowering Women, Through Family Law' in G. Bauer and H.E. Britton (eds) 2006, Women in African Parliaments, Lynne Rienner, 2006, p. 41.
25. Ibid., p. 42.
26. S. Tamale, When Hens Begin to Crow. Gender and Parliamentary Politics in Uganda, Westview Press, 1999, p. 143.
27. A.M. Goetz, 'The Problem with Patronage: Constraints on Women's Political Effectiveness in Uganda' in A.M. Goetz and S. Hassim (eds), No Shortcuts to Power. African Women in Politics and Policy Making, Zed Books, 2003, p. 126;
28. S. Kawamara-Mishambi and I. Ovoni-Odida, 'The "Lost Clause": The Campaign to Advance Women's Property Rights in the Uganda 1998 Land Act' in A.M. Goetz and, S. Hassim (eds), No Shortcuts to Power. African Women in Politics and Policy Making, Zed Books, 2003, pp. 160-87.
29. J.L. Disney, op. cit., pp. 50-51.
30. A.M. Tripp, 'Uganda: Agents of Change for Women's Advancement?' in G. Bauer and H.E. Britton (eds) 2006, Women in African Parliaments, Lynne Rienner, 2006, p. 119.
31. E. Powley, 'Rwanda: Women Hold Up Half the Parliament' in A. Karam and J. Ballington (eds), Women in Parliament: Beyond Numbers, IDEA, revised ed., p. 160.
32. E. Powley and E. Pearson, '"Gender is Society": Inclusive Lawmaking in Rwanda's Parliament', Critical Half 5(1), 2007, pp. 17-21.
33. T. Longman, 'Achieving Equality or Serving an Authoritarian State? Rwanda's Female Parliamentarians' in G. Bauer and H.E. Britton (eds) 2006, Women in African Parliaments, Lynne Rienner, pp. 133-50.
34. E. Powley, op. cit., p. 160.
35. T. Longman, op. cit., p. 149.
36. G. Prunier The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide, Hurst, 1995.
37. T. Longman, op. cit., p. 148.
38. EU Election Observation Mission (EOM) to Rwanda-2003, available at http://ec.europa.eu/comm/ external_relations/human_rights/ eu_election_ass_observ/rwanda/prelim.htm,# accessed, 30 August 2006, p. 37.
39. Freedom in the World, 2007.
40. T. Longman, op. cit., p. 148.
41. African Rights, Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance, African Rights publications, 1995, pp. 597-604.
42. E. Powley, 'Strengthening Governance: The Role of Women in Rwanda's Transition', 2004, available at http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/meetings/ 2004/EGMelectoral/EP5-Powley.PDF.
43. L. Handrahan 'Conflict, Gender, Ethnicity and Post-Conflict Reconstruction', Security Dialogue, 35(4), 2004, pp. 429-45.
44. USAID Office of Democracy and Governance, 'Rwanda Democracy and Governance Assessment', November 2002, available at, www.usaid.gov/our_work/ democracy_and_governance/publications/ac/ field_perspectives.pdf, accessed 30 August 2006.
45. E. Powley, 'Strengthening Governance: The Role of Women in Rwanda's Transition', 2004, available at http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/meeting8/ 2004/EGMelecto,al/EP5-Powley.PDF
46. Quoted from an interview with Deputy Anastase Mukandora, 26 June 2006. The archived figures of the IPU are only available from 1997.
47. T. Longman, op. cit., p. 141.
48. The 30 per cent quota applies to both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, although candidates for the Senate are not directly elected, and the Senate possesses less power than than lower house. Articles 8, 76(2), 54, and 82 also safeguard the political participation of women.
49. Only 11 women were continuously in parliament. One of the MPs currently in parliament had replaced a member who stepped down due to a political scandal in early 2006. This deputy had been in. parliament between 2001 and 2003, but had not, initially, been elected again in 2003.
50. S. Childs, op. cit., p. 9.
51. See, for example, K. Ross, op. cit., pp. 189-201.
52. Interview with Deputy Juliana Kantengwa, 30 June 2006.
53. For example, interview with Deputy Bernadette Kanzayire, 30 June 2006.
54. Kantengwa interview.
55. Interview with Deputy Anastase Mukandora, 26 June 2006.
56. Interview with Deputy Henriette Mukabaranga, 30 June 2006.
57. For example, Mukandora interview, Deputy Berthe Mukamusoni interview, 26 June 2006, and Deputy Esperance Mwiza interview, 28 June 2006.
58. Kantengwa interview.
59. Mukamusoni interview.
60. Kantengwa interview.
61. A parliamentary body founded in 1996 intended to bring women MPs from all parties together.
62. For example, Constance Mukayuhi Rwaka interview, 3 July 2006, and Mukabaranga interview.
63. Deputy Jacqueline Muhongaylre interview, 4 July 2006, and Mukamusoni interview.
64. Kantengwa interview; also Mwiza.
65. Interview with Deputy Connie Bwiza, 28 June 2006.
66. Mwiza interview.
67. For example, Mukandora interview.
68. Mukamusoni interview.
69. Mukayuhi Rwaka interview.
70. Mukamusoni interview.
71. Mukayuhi Rwaka interview.
72. Bwiza interview.
73. It must be taken into account that space is at a premium in the parliament building (it was very heavily damaged during the fighting around Kigali, and large parts of it are still being repaired); the women's apparent lack of interest in the issue is important.
74. For example, Mukabaranga and Mukayuhi Rwaka interviews. 69 Mukabaranga interview.
75. Kantengwa interview.
76. For example, Mukabaranga interview.
77. Mukayuhi Rwaka interview.
78. Mukamusoni interview.
79. Mukamusoni, and Bwiza interviews.
80. Kanzayire interview.
81. Kanzayire interview.
82. Kantengwa interview.
83. Bwiza and Kantengwa interviews.
84. Mukandora interview.
85. Mukamusoni interview.
86. Mukayuhi Rwaka and Muhongayire interviews.
87. Mukandora interview.
88. Mukayuhi Rwaka, Mukabaranga interviews.
89. Mukabaranga, Mukandora, Muhongayire, Mukayuhi Rwaka interviews.
90. Kantengwa interview.
91. Mukayuhi Rwaka interview.
92. Muhongayire interview.
93. G. Bauer and H. Britton, op. cit., p. 17.
94. Mukayuhi Rwaka interview
95. Kantengwa interview.
96. Mukamusoni, Mukabaranga, Mukandora and Muhongayire interviews.
97. Bwiza and Mukandora interviews.
98. Bwiza interview.
99. Kantengwa interview.
100. Bwiza interview.
101. Kantengwa and Muhongayire interviews; also Kanzayire.
102. T. Longman, op. cit., p. 139.
103. E. Powley and E. Pearson, op. cit., pp. 17-21.
104. Ibid.
105. UNIFEM Press Release 'Gender-based violence bill passes in Rwandan Parliament', 2006, available at http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db.900SID/ EGUA-6SFRSH?OpenDocument, accessed 22 April 2007.
106. P. Norris, 'Women Politicians: Transforming Westminster?' in J. Lovenduski and P. Norris (eds), Women in Politics, Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. 91-104.
107. D. Dahlerup, op. cit., p. 285.