Current status and future trends in Cryptosporidium and Giardia epidemiology in Malaysia

Journal of Water and Health

Volumn 6, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 239-254

  Lim, Y A L ^a   Ahmad, R A ^b   Smith, Huw V ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA   (Malaysia)

^b UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA   (Malaysia)

^c STOBHILL HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cryptosporidium; Genotype; Giardia; Public health; Species; Waterborne

Indexed keywords

DRINKING WATER; INDINAVIR; NELFINAVIR; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RITONAVIR;

DETECTION METHOD; DISEASE SPREAD; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; LABORATORY METHOD; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK ASSESSMENT; TESTING METHOD; WATER QUALITY; WATERBORNE DISEASE;

ARTICLE; CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS; CRYPTOSPORIDIUM; DIARRHEA; EFFLUENT; GENOTYPE; GIARDIA; GIARDIASIS; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; LABORATORY TEST; MALAYSIA; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; PREVALENCE; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK ASSESSMENT; SOIL POLLUTION; TAXONOMY; WATER CONTAMINATION; WATER QUALITY; WATER TREATMENT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; ANIMALS; CHILD; CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS; CRYPTOSPORIDIUM; DISEASE RESERVOIRS; FRESH WATER; GIARDIA; GIARDIASIS; HUMANS; MALAYSIA; MIDDLE AGED; PUBLIC HEALTH PRACTICE; SOIL; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION; ZOONOSES;

ASIA; EURASIA; MALAYSIA; SOUTHEAST ASIA;

ANIMALIA; CRYPTOSPORIDIUM; GIARDIA;

EID: 41749125987     PISSN: 14778920     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2166/wh.2008.023     Document Type: Article

References (79)

1. Ahmad, R. A. & Chan, K. H. 1994 The occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium sp. in well water. Paper presented at the 30th Annual Scientific Seminar of Malaysian Society of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, 29 January 1994, Kuala Lumpur.
2. Ahmad, R. A., Lee, E., Tan, I. T. L. & Mohamad-Kamel, A. G. 1997 Occurrence of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in raw and treated water from two water treatment plants in Selangor. Malaysia. Water Res. 31(12), 3132-3136.
3. Anonymous 1990 Cryptosporidium in Water Supplies - Report of the Group of Experts. HMSO, London, UK.
4. Anonymous 1999 UK Statutory Instruments No. 1524. The Water Supply (Water Quality) (Amendment) Regulations 1999. The Stationery Office Ltd., London, UK.
5. Anonymous 2004 Annual Report 2004 AIDS/STD Section, Ministry of Health, Malaysia. http://www.dph.gov.my/aids/.
6. Anonymous 2005a Yearbook of Statistics Malaysia 2005. Department of Statistics, Malaysia.
7. Anonymous 2005b Malaysia Water Industry Guide 2005. The Malaysian Water Association, Kuala Lumpur.
8. Bisseru, B. & Aziz, A. A. 1970 Intestinal parasite, eosinophilia, haemoglobin and gammaglobulin of Malay, Chinese and Indian schoolchildren. Med. J. Malaya 25, 29-33.
9. Boreham, P. F. L., Upcroft, J. A. & Upcroft, P. 1990 Changing approaches to the study of Giardia epidemiology: 1681-2000. Int. J. Parasitol. 20, 479-487.
10. Cacciò, S. M., Thompson, R. C. A., McLauchlin, J. & Smith, H. V. 2005 Unravelling Cryptosporidium and Giardia epidemiology. Trends Parasitol. 21(9), 430-437.
11. Campbell, A. T., Robertson, L. J. & Smith, H. V. 1992 Viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts: correlation of in vitro excystation with inclusion or exclusion of fluorogenic vital dyes. J. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58(11), 3488-3493.
12. Chalmers, R. M., Sturdee, A. P., Bull, S. A. & Miller, A. 1995 Rodent reserviors of Cryptosporidium. In Protozoan Parasites and Water (ed. W. B. Betts, D. P. Casemore, C. R. Fricker, H. V. Smith & J. Watkins), Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, pp. 63-66.
13. Chalmers, R. M., Sturdee, A. P., Bull, S. A., Miller, A. & Wright, S. E. 1997 The prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum and C. muris in Mus domesticus, Apodemus sylvaticus and Clethrionomys glareolus in an agricultural system. Parasitol. Res. 83(5), 478-482.
14. Che Ghani, M. 1993 Giardiasis in Peninsular Malaysia: relationship with types of water supply and sanitation in rural communities. In Drinking Water Quality: Microbiological and Public Health Aspects (ed. M. S. Jangi), Faculty of Life Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, pp. 129-137.
15. Che Ghani, M., Abdullah, M. M. & Hashim, M. B. 1984 A case of cryptosporidiosis in a young man presenting with bloody diarrhoea. J. Malays. Soc. Health 4(2), 80-81.
16. Che Ghani, M., Mohamed, A. M. & Oothuman, P. 1987 Infection with Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia in an urban slum, rural village and medical students in Peninsular Malaysia. Trop. Biomed. 4, 150-154.
17. Colley, F. C. & Mullin, S. W. 1971 Giardia sp. from the lesser mouse-deer Tragulus javanicus in West Malaysia. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 2, 257.
18. Corso, P. S., Kramer, M. H., Blair, K. A., Addiss, D. G., Davis, J. P. & Haddix, A. C. 2003 Cost of illness in the 1993 waterborne Cryptosporidium outbreak, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. J. Emerging Infect. Dis. 9(4), 426-431.
19. Davis, T. M. E. & Reynoldson, J. A. 1994 Discussants report: clinical significance, pathogenesis and control. In Giardia: from molecules to disease (ed. R. C. A. Thompson, J. A. Reynoldson & A. J. Lymbery), CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 381-390.
20. Dissanaike, A. S., Kan, S. P., Vijayamma, T. & Ong, H. T. 1977 Studies on parasitic infections in Orang Asli (Aborigines) in Peninsular Malaysia. Med. J. Malaysia 32, 48-55.
21. Dunn, F. L. 1972 Intestinal parasites in Malayan aborigines (Orang Asli). WHO Bull. 46, 99-113.
22. Farizawati, S., Lim, Y. A. L., Ahmad, R. A., Fatimah, C. T. N. I. & Siti-Nor, Y. 2005 Contribution of cattle farms towards river contamination with Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in Sungai Langat Basin. Trop. Biomed. 22(2), 89-98.
23. Fatimah, C. T. N. I., Lee, C. C., Rafie, D., Fazlina, B. & Salim, N. B. 1995a Cryptosporidiosis and diarrhoea in goat kids. J. Vet. Malaysia 6, 107-109.
24. Fatimah, C. T. N. I., Lee, C. C., Azri, A., Rafie, D., Fazlina, B., Salim, N. B., Azizah, D. & Safri, A. H. 1995b The occurrence and epidemiology of enteropathogens and diarrhoea in neonatal lambs. J. Vet. Malaysia 7, 27-29.
25. Fayer, R. 1994 Effect of high temperature on infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60(8), 2732-2735.
26. Gilman, R. H., Marquis, G. S., Miranda, E., Vestegui, M. & Martinez, H. 1988 Rapid reinfection by Giardia lamblia after treatment in a hyperendemic Third World community. Lancet 1(8581), 343-345.
27. Hamimah, J., Zahedi, M. & Ainiyah, A. J. 1982 The prevalence of intestinal parasites among children at the General Hospital, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Med. J. Malaysia 37, 373-377.
28. Hommer, V., Eicholz, J. & Petry, F. 2003 Effect of antiretroviral protease inhibitors alone, and in combination with paromomycin, on the excystation, invasion and in vivo development of Cryptosporidium parvum. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 52, 359-364.
29. Kamel, A. G., Mohamad Sham Kasim & Lai, K. P. F. 1994a Parasitic infections among Orang Asli community in Pangsun, Hulu Langat. Institute for Medical Research Annual Report. Institute for Medical Research, Kuala Lumpur, pp. 46-47.
30. Kamel, A. G. M., Maning, N., Arulmainathan, S., Murad, S., Nasuruddin, A. & Lai, K. P. F. 1994b Cryptosporidiosis among HIV positive intravenous drug users in Malaysia. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 25(4), 650-653.
31. Kan, S. P. & Shekhar, K. C. 1993 The prevalence of cryptosporidiosis in children and adults at University Hospital, Kuala Lumpur. Med. J. Malaysia 48, 293-296.
32. Khairul Anuar, A. & Afifi, S. A. B. 1990 Parasitic disease among fishermen living on Penang Island: intestinal protozoa and malaria. Diagnosa 4, 57-62.
33. Lai, K. P. F. 1992 Intestinal protozoan infections in Malaysia. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 23(4), 578-586.
34. Lim, Y. A. L. 1996 Pengesanan protozoa patogen usus dan telur helmint dalam air kumbahan di loji rawatan kumbahan Bangi dan UKM. Tesis Sarjana Muda Sains. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
35. Lim, Y. A. L. 2000 A study on Giardia and Cryptospoiridum infections in a Temuan (Aborigine) community and the occurrence of these parasites in the environment. PhD thesis. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
36. Lim, Y. A. L. & Ahmad, R. A. 2001 Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium oocysts in rodents in the vicinity of the Temuan Orang Asli community. Malays. Appl. Biol. 30(1&2), 39-45.
37. Lim, Y. A. L. & Ahmad, R. A. 2004a Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium oocysts in the Temuan Orang Asli (Aborigine) river system. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 35(4), 801-810.
38. Lim, Y. A. L. & Ahmad, R. A. 2004b Contamination of Temuan Orang Asli (Aborigine) household water with faecally-transmitted parasite. Malays. Appl. Biol. 33(1), 1-6.
39. Lim, Y. A. L., Ahmad, R. A. & Osman, Ali 1997 Prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium infections in a Temuan (aborigine) village in Malaysia. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 91, 505-506.
40. Lim, Y. A. L., Ahmad, R. A., Osman, Ali & Zulkeflie, Z. 1999 Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in river and soil environments. Trop. Biomed. 16, 7-15.
41. Lim, Y. A. L., Rohela, M., Sim, B. L. H., Jamaiah, I. & Nurbayah, M. 2005 Prevalence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV infected patients in Kajang Hospital, Selangor. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 36(Supplement 4), 30-33.
42. MacKenzie, W. R., Hoxie, N. J., Proctor, M. E., Gradus, M. S., Blair, K. A., Peterson, D. E., Kazmierczak, J. J., Addiss, D. G., Fox, K. R., Rose, J. B. & Davis, J. P. 1994 A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N. Eng. J. Med. 331, 161-167.
43. Mat Ludin, C. M., Afifi, S. A. B., Hasenan, N., Mainumah, A. & Khairul Anuar, A. 1991 Cryptosporidiosis among children with acute gastroenteritis in the pediatric ward in the General Hospital, Penang. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 22(2), 200-202.
44. Mendez, N. L., Mohd. Hamdan, M. T. & Ow-Yang, C. K. 1988 The prevalence of Cryptosporidium as a causative agent in diarrhoea among young children. Institute for Medical Research Annual Report. Institute for Medical Research, Kuala Lumpur. pp. 46-47.
45. Menon, B. S., Abdullah, M. S., Mahamud, F. & Singh, B. 1999 Intestinal parasites in Malaysian children with cancer. J. Trop. Pediatr. 45, 241-242.
46. Menon, B. S., Abdullah, S., Mahamud, F., Morgan, U. M., Malik, A. S., Choo, K. E. & Singh, B. 2001 Low prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum in hospitalized children in Kota Bharu, Malaysia. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 32, 319-322.
47. Ministry of Health, Malaysia 2005 Summary of HIV and AIDS cases reported by year. Malaysia: 1986 until June 2005. Section of AIDS/STD, Ministry of Health, Malaysia. pp. 46-47.
48. Monis, P. T. & Thompson, R. C. 2003 Cryptosporidium and Giardia zoonoses: fact or fiction? Infect. Genet. Evol. 3, 233-244.
49. Nawalinski, T. & Roundy, L. M. 1978 Intestinal parasitism in a kampong on Pulau Pangkor, West Malaysia. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 9, 440-441.
50. Ng, K. P. & Shekhar, K. C. 1993 The prevalence of cryptosporidiosis in children and adults at University Hospital, Kuala Lumpur. Med. J. Malaysia 48, 293-296.
51. Norhayati, M., Penggabean, M., Oothuman, P. & Fatmah, M. S. 1998 Prevalence and some risk factors of Giardia duodenalis infection in a rural community in Malaysia. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 29, 735-738.
52. O'Donoghue, P. J. 1995 Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis in man and animals. Int. J. Parasitol. 25, 139-195.
53. Okhuysen, P. C., Chappell, C. L., Crabb, J. H., Sterling, C. R. & DuPont, H. L. 1999 Virulence of three distinct Cryptosporidium parvum isolates for healthy adults. J. Infect. Dis. 180, 1275-1281.
54. Rahmah, N., Ariff, R. H., Abdullah, B., Shariman, M. S., Nazli, M. Z. & Rizal, M. Z. 1997 Parasitic infections among aborigine children at Post Brooke, Kelantan, Malaysia. Med. J. Malaysia 52, 412-415.
55. Rahman, W. A. 1990 Prevalence of Giardia in dogs in Malaysia: survey of a residential housing estate. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 84, 805.
56. Rajeswari, B., Sinniah, B. & Hussein, H. 1994 Socio-economic factors associated with intestinal parasites among children living in Gombak, Malaysia. Asia Pac. J. Public Health 7, 21-25.
57. Rendtorff, R. C. 1954 The experimental transmission of human intestinal protozoan parasites. II. Giardia lamblia cysts given in capsules. Am. J. Hyg. 59, 209-220.
58. Robertson, L. J., Smith, P. G., Grimason, A. M. & Smith, H. V. 1999 Removal and destruction of intestinal parasitic protozoans by sewage treatment processes. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 9, 85-96.
59. Robertson, L. J., Paton, C. A., Campbell, A. T., Smith, P. G., Jackson, M. H., Gilmour, R. A., Black, S. E., Stevenson, D. E. & Smith, H. V. 2000 Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts at sewage treatment works in Scotland, UK. Water Res. 34, 2310-2322.
60. Robertson, L. J., Forberg, T., Hermansen, L., Gjerde, B. K., Alvsvag, J. O. & Langeland, N. 2006 Cryptosporidium parvum infections in Bergen, Norway, during an extensive outbreak of waterborne giardiasis in autumn and winter 2004. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72(3), 2218-2220.
61. Rohela, M., Lim, Y. A. L., Jamaiah, I., Khadijah, P. Y. Y., Laang, S. T., Mohd Nazri, M. H. & Nurulhuda, Z. 2005 Occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in wrinkled hornbill and other birds in the Kuala Lumpur national zoo. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 36(Supplement 4), 34-40.
62. Savioli, L., Smith, H. V. & Thompson, R. C. A. 2006 Giardia and Cryptosporidium join the 'Neglected Diseases Initiative'. Trends Parasitol. 22(5), 203-208.
63. See, P. L. 1997 Pengesanan Cryptosporidium sp. di kawasan ternakan lembu Selangor. Tesis Sarjana Muda Sains. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
64. Shekhar, K. C., Prathapa, S. & Gurpreet, K. 1996 Prevalence of giardiasis among Malaysian primary school children. Med. J. Malaysia 51, 475-479.
65. Sinniah, B. 1984 Intestinal protozoan and helminth infections and control of soil-transmitted helminths in Malay school children. Public Health London 98, 152-156.
66. Sinniah, B. & Rajeswari, B. 1988 Intestinal parasitic infection among Indonesia immigrants in Kampung Kamensah, Gombak district, Selangor. J. Malays. Soc. Health 6, 56-59.
67. Sinniah, B., Sinniah, D., Singh, Manmohan & Poon, G. K. 1978 Prevalence of parasitic infections in Malaysian oil palm estate workers. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 9(2), 272-276.
68. Sinniah, B., Rampal, L. & Rajeswari, B. 1988 Parasitic infections among school children of Pulau Ketam. J. Malays. Soc. Health 6, 30-33.
69. Smith, H. V. & Lloyd, A. 1997 Protozoan parasites in drinking water: a UK perspective. New World Water Issue 1, 109-116.
70. Smith, H. V. & Rose, J. B. 1998 Waterborne cryptosporidiosis: current status. Parasitol. Today 14(1), 14-22.
71. Smith, H. V. & Nichols, R. A. B. 2004 Case study of health effects of Cryptosporidium in drinking water. In: UNESCO-EOLSS encyclopedia of life support systems. Article 4.12.4.8.
72. Smith, H. V., Robertson, L. J. & Ongerth, E. 1995 Cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis: the impact of waterborne transmission. J. Water SRT-Aqua 44(6), 258-274.
73. Smith, H. V., Ahmad, R. A. & Watkins, J. 1997 Parasitic protozoa and the waterborne route for the transmission of disease. Trop. Biomed. 14, 35-49.
74. Smith, H. V., Cacciò, S. M., Tait, A., McLauchlin, J. & Thompson, R. C. A. 2006 Tools for investigating the environmental transmission of Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections in humans. Trends Parasitol. 22(4), 160-167.
75. Tan, I. T. L. 1998 Pengesanan protozoa patogen di tiga buah loji pembersihan air di Negeri Sembilan. Tesis Sarjana Sains. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
76. Thompson, R. C. A. 2002 Presidential address: rediscovering parasites using molecular tools-towards revising the taxonomy of Echinococcus, Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Int. J. Parasitol. 32, 493-496.
77. Thompson, R. C. A. 2004 The zoonotic significance and molecular epidemiology of Giardia and giardiasis. Vet. Parasitol. 126, 15-35.
78. Thompson, R. C. A. & Monis, P. T. 2004 Variation in Giardia: implications for taxonomy and epidemiology. Adv. Parasitol. 58, 69-137.
79. Xiao, L., Fayer, R., Ryan, U. & Upton, S. J. 2004 Cryptosporidium taxonomy: recent advances and implications for public health. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 17, 72-97.