Prostate-specific antigen: A review of the validation of the most commonly used cancer biomarker

Cancer

Volumn 101, Issue 5, 2004, Pages 894-904

  Hernández, Javier ^a   Thompson, Ian M ^a  

^a Mays Cancer Center at UT Health San Antonio   (United States)

Author keywords

Biomarkers; Prostate carcinoma; Prostate specific antigen (PSA); Screening

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MARKER; PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN; TUMOR MARKER;

ANTIGEN DETECTION; CANCER DIAGNOSIS; CANCER GRADING; CANCER MORTALITY; CANCER PREVENTION; CANCER SCREENING; CLINICAL RESEARCH; DIAGNOSTIC VALUE; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; HUMAN; MALE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTATE BIOPSY; PROSTATE CARCINOMA; PROTEIN MODIFICATION; REFERENCE VALUE; REVIEW; VALIDATION PROCESS;

CLINICAL TRIALS; HUMANS; MALE; MASS SCREENING; PROSTATE-SPECIFIC ANTIGEN; PROSTATIC NEOPLASMS; TUMOR MARKERS, BIOLOGICAL;

EID: 4143148652     PISSN: 0008543X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/cncr.20480     Document Type: Review

References (125)

1. Thompson IM, Pauler DK, Tangen CM, et al. The predictive value of prostate specific antigen less than 4.0 ng/ml for the diagnosis of prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2004;350: 2239-2246.
2. Ablin RJ, Soanes WA, Bronson P, et al. Precipitating antigens of the normal human prostate. J Reprod Fertil. 1970; 22:573-574.
3. Ablin RJ, Bronson P, Soanes WA, et al. Tissue- and species specific antigens of normal human prostatic tissue. J Immunol. 1970;104:1329-1339.
4. Hara M, Koyanagi Y, Inoue T, et al. Some physicochemical characteristics of "γ - seminoprotein," an antigenic component specific for human seminal plasma. Nippon Hoigaku Zasshi. 1971;25:322-324.
5. Li TS, Beling CG. Isolation and characterization of two specific antigens of human seminal plasma. Fertil Steril. 1973;24:134-144.
6. Sensabaugh GF, Crim D. Isolation and characterization of a semen-specific protein from human seminal plasma: a potential new marker for semen identification. J Forensic Sci. 1978;23:106-115.
7. Wang MC, Valenzuela LA, Murphy GP, et al. Purification of a human prostate specific antigen. Investig Urol (Berl). 1979;17:159-163.
8. Lilja H. A kallikrein-like serine protease in prostatic fluid cleaves the predominant seminal vesicle protein. J Clin Invest. 1985;76:1899-1903.
9. Sullivan TJ, Gutman EB, Gutman AB. Theory and application of the serum "acid" phosphatase determination in metastizing prostatic carcinoma: early effects of castration. J Urol. 1942;48:426-458.
10. Seamonds B, Whitaker MS, Yang N, Shaw LM, Anderson K, Bollinger JR. Evaluation of prostate-specific antigen and prostatic acid phosphatase as prostate cancer markers. Urology. 1986;28(6):472-479.
11. Stamey TA, Yang N, Hay AR, McNeal JE, Freiha FS, Redwine E. Prostate-specific antigen as a serum marker for adenocarcinoma of the prostate. N Engl J Med. 1987;317(15):909-916.
12. Ferro M, Gillatt D, Symes M, Smith P. High-dose intravenous estrogen therapy in advanced prostatic carcinoma. Use of serum prostate-specific antigen to monitor response. Urology. 1989;34(3):134-138.
13. Hudson M, Bahnson R, Catalona W. Clinical use of prostate specific antigen in patients with prostate cancer. J Urol. 1989;142(4):1011-1017.
14. Oesterling JE, Chan DW, Epstein JI, et al. Prostate specific antigen in the preoperative and postoperative evaluation of localized prostatic cancer treated with radical prostatectomy. J Urol. 1988;139(4):766-772.
15. Lange PH, Ercole CJ, Lightner DJ, Fraley EE, Vessella R. The value of serum prostate specific antigen determinations before and after radical prostatectomy. J Urol. 1989;141(4): 873-879.
16. Guinan P, Bhatti R, Ray P. An evaluation of prostate specific antigen in prostatic cancer. J Urol. 1987;137:686-689.
17. Barak M, Mecz Y, Lurie A, Gruener N. Evaluation of prostate-specific antigen as a marker for adenocarcinoma of the prostate. J Lab Clin Med. 1989;113(5):598-603.
18. Herschman JD, Smith DS, Catalona WJ. Effect of ejaculation on serum total and free prostate-specific antigen concentrations. Urology. 1997;50(2):239-243.
19. Dejter SW, Martin JS, McPherson RA, Lynch JH. Daily variability in human serum prostate-specific antigen and prostatic acid phosphatase: a comparative evaluation. Urology. 1988;32(4):288-292.
20. Ornstein DK, Smith DS, Rao GS, Basler JW, Ratliff TL, Catalona WJ. Biological variation of total, free and percent free serum prostate specific antigen levels in screening volunteers. J Urol. 1997;157:2179-2182.
21. Brawer MK, Beatie J, Wener MH, Vessella RL, Preston SD, Lange PH. Screening for prostatic carcinoma with prostate specific antigen: results of the second year. J Urol. 1993; 150(1):106-109.
22. Brawer MK, Chetner MP, Beatie J, Buchner DM, Vessella RL, Lange PH. Screening for prostatic carcinoma with prostate specific antigen. J Urol. 1992;147(3 Pt 2):841-845.
23. Terris MK, Stamey TA. Utilization of polyclonal serum prostate specific antigen levels in screening for prostate cancer: a comparison with corresponding monoclonal values. Br J Urol. 1993;73(1):61-64.
24. Cooner WH, Mosley BR, Rutherford CL, et al. Prostate cancer detection in a clinical urological practice by ultrasonography, digital rectal examination and prostate specific antigen. J Urol. 1990;143(6):1146-1152.
25. Catalona W, Smith D, Ratliff T, et al. Measurement of prostate-specific antigen in serum as a screening test for prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 1991;324(17):1156-1161.
26. Thompson IM, Ernst JJ, Gangai MP, Spence CR. Adenocarcinoma of the prostate: results of routine urological screening. J Urol. 1984;132(4):690-692.
27. Chodak GW, Schoenberg HW. Early detection of prostate cancer by routine screening. JAMA. 1984;252(23):3261-3264.
28. Farkas A, Schneider D, Perrotti M, Cummings K, Ward W. National trends in the epidemiology of prostate cancer, 1973 to 1994: evidence for the effectiveness of prostate-specific antigen screening. Urology. 1998;52(3):444-448; discussion, 448-449.
29. Mettlin C, Murphy G, Babaian R, et al. The results of a five-year early prostate cancer detection intervention. Investigators of the American Cancer Society National Prostate Cancer Detection Project. Cancer. 1996;77(1):150-159.
30. Jacobsen S, Katusic S, Bergstralh E, et al. Incidence of prostate cancer diagnosis in the eras before and after serum prostate-specific antigen testing. JAMA. 1995;274(18): 1445-1449.
31. Wang TY, Kawaguchi TP. Preliminary evaluation of measurement of serum prostate-specific antigen level in detection of prostate cancer. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 1986;16(6):461-466.
32. Carvalhal GF, Smith DS, Mager DE, Ramos C, Catalona WJ. Digital rectal examination for detecting prostate cancer at prostate specific antigen levels of 4 ng./ml. or less. J Urol. 1999;161:835-839.
33. Potosky AL, Miller BA, Albertsen PC, Kramer BS. The role of increasing detection in the rising incidence of prostate cancer. JAMA. 1995;273(7):548-552.
34. Catalona WJ, Smith DS, Ratliff TL, Basler JW. Detection of organ-confined prostate cancer is increased through prostate-specific antigen-based screening. JAMA. 1993;270(8): 948-954.
35. Ellis WJ, Chetner MP, Preston SD, Brawer MK. Diagnosis of prostatic carcinoma: the yield of serum prostate specific antigen, digital rectal examination and transrectal ultrasonography. J Urol. 1994;152(5 Pt 1):1520-1525.
36. Flanigan RC, Catalona WJ, Richie JP, et al. Accuracy of digital rectal examination and transrectal ultrasonography in localizing prostate cancer. J Urol. 1994;152:1506-1509.
37. Oesterling JE, Jacobsen SJ, Chute CG, et al. Serum prostate specific antigen in a community-based population of healthy men: establishment of age-specific reference ranges. JAMA. 1993;270(7):860-864.
38. Gustafsson O, Mansour E, Norming U, Carlsson A, Tomblom M, Nyman CR. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA), PSA density and age-adjusted PSA reference values in screening for prostate cancer-a study of a randomly selected population of 2,400 men. Scand J Urol Nephrol. 1998;32(6):373-377.
39. Moul JW, Sesterrhenn IA, Connelly RR, Srivastava S, Mostofi F, McLeod DG. Prostate-specific antigen values at the time of prostate cancer diagnosis in African-American men. JAMA. 1995;274(16):1277-1281.
40. Eastham JA, Whatley T, Crow A, Venable DD, Sartor O. Clinical characteristics and biopsy specimen features in African-American and white men without prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998;90(10):756-760.
41. Abdalla I, Ray P, Vaida F, Vijayakumar S. Racial differences in prostate-specific antigen levels and prostate-specific antigen densities in patients with prostate cancer. Am J Clin Oncol. 1999;22(6):537-541.
42. McCammon KA, Schellhammer PF, Wright GL, Lynch DF. Age specific PSA levels in African Americans [abstract 461]. J Urol. 1996;155:426.
43. Carter HB, Pearson JD, Metter EJ, et al. Longitudinal evaluation of prostate-specific antigen levels in men with and without prostate disease. JAMA. 1992;267(16):2215-2220.
44. Carter HB, Pearson JD, Waclawiw Z, et al. Prostate-specific antigen variability in men without prostate cancer: effect of sampling interval on prostate-specific antigen velocity. Urology. 1995;45(4):591-596.
45. Benson MC, Whang IS, Olsson CA, McMahon DJ, Cooner WH. The use of prostate specific antigen density to enhance the predictive value of intermediate levels of serum prostate specific antigen. J Urol. 1992;147(3 Pt 2):817-821.
46. Brawer MK, Aramburu EA, Chen GL, Preston SD, Ellis WJ. The inability of prostate specific antigen index to enhance the predictive the value of prostate specific antigen in the diagnosis of prostatic carcinoma. J Urol. 1993;150(2 Pt 1): 369-373.
47. Catalona WJ, Richie JP, deKernion JB, et al. Comparison of prostate specific antigen concentration versus prostate specific antigen density in the early detection of prostate cancer: receiver operating characteristic curves. J Urol. 1994;152(6 Pt 1):2031-2036.
48. Catalona WJ, Smith DS, Ornstein DK. Prostate cancer detection in men with serum PSA concentrations of 2.6 to 4.0 ng/ml and benign prostate examination: enhancement of specificity with free PSA measurement. JAMA. 1997;277: 1452-1455.
49. Partin AW, Catalona WJ, Southwick PC, Subong EN, Gasior GH, Chan DW. Analysis of percent free prostate-specific antigen (PSA) for prostate cancer detection: influence of total PSA, prostate volume, and age. Urology. 1996;48(6A Suppl):55-61.
50. Partin AW, Brawer MK, Bartsch G, et al. Complexed prostate specific antigen improves specificity for prostate cancer detection: results of a prospective multicenter clinical trial. J Urol. 2003;170(5):1787-1791.
51. Catalona WJ, Bartsch G, Rittenhouse HG, et al. Serum pro prostate specific antigen improves cancer detection compared to free and complexed prostate specific antigen in men with prostate specific antigen 2 to 4 ng/ml. J Urol. 2003;170(6 Pt 1):2181-2185.
52. Mikolajczyk SD, Marker KM, Millar LS, et al. A truncated precursor form of prostate-specific antigen is a more specific serum marker of prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 2001; 61(18):6958-6963.
53. Kobayashi T, Nishizawa K, Ogura K, Mitsumori K, Ide Y. Detection of prostate cancer in men with prostate-specific antigen levels of 2.0 to 4.0 ng/ml equivalent to that in men with 4.1 to 10. ng/ml in a Japanese population. Urology. 2004;63(4):727-731.
54. Roobol MJ, Kranse R, de Koning HJ, Schroder FH. Prostate-specific antigen velocity at low prostate-specific antigen levels as screening tool for prostate cancer: results of second screening round of ERSPC (Rotterdam). Urology. 2004; 63(2):309-315.
55. Lujan M, Paez A, Miravalles E, Fernandez I, Llanes L, Berenguer A. Prostate cancer detection is also relevant in low prostate specific antigen ranges. Eur Urol. 2003;45:155-159.
56. Horninger W, Cheli CD, Babaian R, et al. Complexed prostate-specific antigen for early detection of prostate cancer in men with serum prostate-specific antigen levels of 2 to 4 nanograms per milliliter. Urology. 2002;60(Suppl 4A):31-35.
57. Lein M, Kwiatkowski M, Semjonow A, et al. A multicenter clinical trial on the use of complexed prostate specific antigen in low prostate specific antigen concentrations. J Urol. 2003;170(4 Pt 1):1175-1179.
58. Ward JF, Bartsch G, Sebo TJ, Pinggera G-M, Blute ML, Zincke H, Pathologic characterization of prostate cancers with a very low serum prostate specific antigen (0 - 2 ng/mL) incidental to cystoprostatectomy: is PSA a useful indicator of clinical significance? Urolc Oncol. 2004;22:40-47.
59. Sokolof MH, Yang XJ, Fumo M, Mhoon D, Brendler C. Characterizing prostatic adenocarcinomas in men with a serum prostate specific antigen level of <4.0 ng/mL. BJU Int. 2004;93:499-502.
60. Horninger W, Berger AP, Rogatsch H, et al. Characteristics of prostate cancers detected at low PSA levels. Prostate. 2004;58(3):232-237.
61. Nishio R, Furuya Y, Nagakawa O, Fuse H. Metastatic prostate cancer with normal level of serum prostate-specific antigen. Int Urol Nephrol. 2003;35:189-192.
62. Tangen CM, Faulkner JR, Crawford ED, et al. Ten-year survival in patients with metastatic prostate cancer. Clin Prostate Cancer. 2003;2:41-45.
63. Wendel RG, Evans AT. Complications of punch biopsy of the prostate gland. J Urol. 1967;97(1):122-126.
64. Esposti PL, Elman A, Norlen H. Complications of transrectal aspiration biopsy of the prostate. Scand J Urol Nephrol. 1975;9(3):208-213.
65. Radge H, Aldape HC, Bagley CMJ. Ultrasound-guided biopsy. Biopty gun superior to aspiration. Urology. 1988; 32(6):503-506.
66. Lee F, Littrup PJ, Kumasaka GH, Borlaza GS, McLeary RD. The use of transrectal ultrasound in the diagnosis, guided biopsy, staging and screening of prostate cancer. Radiographics. 1987;7(4):627-644.
67. Hodge KK, McNeal JE, Terris MK, et al. Random systematic versus directed ultrasound guided transrectal core biopsies of the prostate. J Urol. 1989;142:71-75.
68. Presti JC, Chang JJ, Bhargava V, et al. The optimal systematic prostate biopsy strategy scheme should include 8 rather than 6 biopsies: results of a prospective clinical trial. J Urol. 2000;163(1):163-166; discussion, 166-167.
69. Keetch DW, Catalona WJ, Smith DS. Serial prostate biopsies in men with persistently elevated serum prostate specific antigen values. J Urol. 1994;151:1571-1574.
70. Stroumbakis N, Cookson MS, Reuter VE, et al. Clinical significance of repeat sextant biopsies in prostate cancer patients. J Urol. 1997;49(3A):113-118.
71. Davis M, Sofer M, Kim SS, Soloway MS. The procedure of transrectal ultrasound guided biopsy of the prostate: a survey of patient preparation and biopsy technique. J Urol. 2002;167(2 Pt 1):566-570.
72. Whitmore W, Warner J, Thompson I. Expectant management of localized prostatic cancer. Cancer. 1991;67(4):1091-1096.
73. Chodak G, Thisted R, Gerber G, et al. Results of conservative management of clinically localized prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 1994;330(4):242-248.
74. Adolfsson J, Steineck G, Hedlund P. Deferred treatment of locally advanced nonmetastatic prostate cancer: a long-term followup. J Urol. 1999;161(2):505-508.
75. Johansson J, Holmberg L, Johansson S, Bergstrom R, Adami H. Fifteen-year survival in prostate cancer. A prospective, population-based study in Sweden. JAMA. 1997;277(6):467-471.
76. George NJ. Natural history of localised prostatic cancer managed by conservative therapy alone. Lancet. 1988;1(8584):494-497.
77. Holmberg L, Bill-Axelson A, Helgesen F, et al. A randomized trial comparing radical prostatectomy with watchful waiting in early prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2002;347(11):781-789.
78. Wilt T, Brawer M. The Prostate Cancer Intervention Versus Observation Trial (PIVOT). Oncology (Huntingt). 1997;11(8): 1133-1139; discussion, 1139-1140, 1143.
79. Eastham J, Kattan M, Scardino P. Nomograms as predictive models. Semin Urol Oncol. 2002;20(2):108-115.
80. D'Amico A, Desjardin A, Chung A, Chen M. Assessment of outcome prediction models for localized prostate cancer in patients managed with external beam radiation therapy. Semin Urol Oncol. 1998;16(3):153-159.
81. D'Amico A, Keshaviah A, Manola J, et al. Clinical utility of the percentage of positive prostate biopsies in predicting prostate cancer-specific and overall survival after radiotherapy for patients with localized prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2002;53(3):581-587.
82. Census 2000 Summary File 1 (SF 1) 100-Percent Data. United States Census Bureau. Available from URL: http:// www.census.gov/population/cen2000/phc-t9/ tab02.pdf [accessed May 18 2004].
83. DeAntoni E, Crawford ED, Stone NN, et al. Prostate Cancer Awareness Week, 1992: a summary of key findings [review]. Clin Invest Med. 1993;16(6):448-457.
84. DeAntoni EP. Eight years of "Prostate Cancer Awareness Week": lessons in screening and early detection. Prostate Cancer Education Council. Cancer. 1997;80(9):1845-1851.
85. DeAntoni EP, Crawford ED, Oesterling JE, et al. Age- and race-specific reference ranges for prostate-specific antigen from a large community-based study. Urology. 1996;48(2): 234-239.
86. Hankey BF, Feuer EJ, Clegg LX, et al. Cancer surveillance series: interpreting trends in prostate cancer-part I: evidence of the effects of screening in recent prostate cancer incidence, mortality, and survival rates. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999;91(12):1017-1024.
87. Lu-Yao GL, Potosky AL, Albertsen PC, Wasson JH, Barry MJ, Wennberg JE. Follow-up prostate cancer treatments after radical prostatectomy: a population-based study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88(3-4):166-173.
88. Thompson IM, Goodman PJ, Tangen CM, et al. The influence of finasteride on the development of prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(3):215-224.
89. Reis SE, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL, Tan-Chiu E, Wang J, Kavanah M. Cardiovascular effects of tamoxifen in women with and without heart disease: breast cancer prevention trial. National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project Breast Cancer Prevention Trial Investigators. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001;93(1):16-21.
90. Amling CL, Kane CJ, Riffenburgh RH, et al. Relationship between obesity and race in predicting adverse pathologic variables in patients undergoing radical prostatectomy. Urology. 2001;58(5):723-728.
91. Amling CL, Riffenburgh RH, Sun L, et al. Pathologic variables and recurrence rates as related to obesity and race in men with prostate cancer undergoing radical prostatectomy.[see comment]. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22(3):439-445.
92. Freedland SJ, Aronson WJ, Kane CJ, et al. Impact of obesity on biochemical control after radical prostatectomy for clinically localized prostate cancer: a report by the Shared Equal Access Regional Cancer Hospital database study group. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22(3):446-453.
93. Meyer F, Bairati I, Shadmani R, Fradet Y, Moore L. Dietary fat and prostate cancer survival. Cancer Causes Control. 1999;10(4):245-251.
94. Fradet Y, Meyer F, Bairati I, Shadmani R, Moore L. Dietary fat and prostate cancer progression and survival. Eur Urol. 1999;35(5-6):388-391.
95. Yoshizawa K, Willett WC, Morris SJ, et al. Study of prediagnostic selenium level in toenails and the risk of advanced prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998;90:1219-1224.
96. Kittles RA, Panguluri RK, Chen W, et al. Cyp17 promoter variant associated with prostate cancer aggressiveness in African Americans. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2001;10(9):943-947.
97. Makridakis NM, Ross KR, Pike MC, et al. Association of mis-sense substitution in SRD5A2 gene with prostate cancer in African-American and Hispanic men in Los Angeles, USA. Lancet. 1999;354:975-978.
98. Rebbeck TR, Jaffe JM, Walker AH, Wein AJ, Malkowicz SB. Modification of clinical presentation of prostate tumors by a novel genetic variant in CYP3A4. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998; 90:1225-1229.
99. Hoffman R, Gilliland F, Eley J, et al. Racial and ethnic differences in advanced-stage prostate cancer: the Prostate Cancer Outcomes Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001;93(5): 388-395.
100. Brawn PN, Johnson EH, Kuhl DL, et al. Stage at presentation and survival of white and black patients with prostate carcinoma. Cancer. 1993;71(8):2569-2573.
101. Thompson I, Tangen C, Tolcher A, Crawford E, Eisenberger M, Moinpour C. Association of African-American ethnic background with survival in men with metastatic prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001;93(3):219-225.
102. Grossfeld GD, Latini DM, Downs T, Lubeck DP, Mehta SS, Carroll PR. Is ethnicity an independent predictor of prostate cancer recurrence after radical prostatectomy? J Urol. 2002;168(6):2510-2515.
103. Kotsis SV, Spencer SL, Peyser PA, Montie JE, Cooney KA. Early onset prostate cancer: predictors of clinical grade. J Urol. 2002;167(4):1659-1663.
104. Ribeiro M, Ruff P, Falkson G. Low serum testosterone and a younger age predict for a poor outcome in metastatic prostate cancer. Am J Clin Oncol. 1997;20(6):605-608.
105. Smith CV, Bauer JJ, Connelly RR, et al. Prostate cancer in men age 50 years or younger: a review of the Department of Defense Center for Prostate Disease Research multicenter prostate cancer database. J Urol. 2000;164(6):1964-1967.
106. Mohideen MN, McCall AR, Feinstein J, Sidrys J, Bricker P, Luka S. Factors that influence biochemical failure after radiation therapy for stage T1c prostate cancer. Am J Clin Oncol. 1998;21(1):6-11.
107. Catalona WJ, Antenor JAV, Roehl KA. Screening for prostate cancer in high risk populations. J Urol. 2002;168:1980-1983.
108. Balic I, Graham S, Troyer D, et al. Androgen receptor length polymorphism associated with prostate cancer risk in Hispanic men. J Urol. 2002;168(5):2245-2248.
109. Makridakis N, Reichardt J. Molecular epidemiology of androgen-metabolic loci in prostate cancer: predisposition and progression. J Urol. 2004;171(2 Pt 2):S25-S28; discussion, S28-S29.
110. Coughlin S, Hall I. A review of genetic polymorphisms and prostate cancer risk. Ann Epidemiol. 2002;12(3):182-196.
111. Reddy S, Shapiro M, Morton R, Brawley O. Prostate cancer in black and white Americans. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2003; 22(1):83-86.
112. Thomas J. Diet, micronutrients, and the prostate gland. Nutr Rev. 1999;57(4):95-103.
113. Newcomer L, King I, Wicklund K, Stanford J. The association of fatty acids with prostate cancer risk. Prostate. 2001; 47(4):262-268.
114. Giovannucci E, Rimm E, Liu Y, et al. Body mass index and risk of prostate cancer in U.S. health professionals. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95(16):1240-1244.
115. Azzouzi AR, Valeri A, Cormier L, Fournier G, Mangin P, Cussenot O. Familial prostate cancer cases before and after radical prostatectomy do not show any aggressiveness compared with sporadic cases. Urology. 2003;61(6):1193-1197.
116. Bauer JJ, Srivastava S, Connelly RR, et al. Significance of familial history of prostate cancer to traditional prognostic variables, genetic biomarkers, and recurrence after radical prostatectomy. Urology. 1998;51(6):970-976.
117. Bratt O, Kristoffersson U, Olsson H, Lundgren R. Clinical course of early onset prostate cancer with special reference to family history as a prognostic factor. Eur Urol. 1998; 34(1):19-24.
118. Bruner D, Moore D, Parlanti A, Dorgan J, Engstrom P. Relative risk of prostate cancer for men with affected relatives: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cancer. 2003;107(5):797-803.
119. Kalish L, McDougal W, McKinlay J. Family history and the risk of prostate cancer. Urology. 2000;56(5):803-806.
120. Qu Y, Adam BL, Yasui Y, et al. Boosted decision tree analysis of surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization mass spectral serum profiles discriminates prostate cancer from noncancer patients. Clin Chem. 2002;48(10):1835-1843.
121. Cazares LH, Adam BL, Ward MD, et al. Normal, benign, preneoplastic, and malignant prostate cells have distinct protein expression profiles resolved by surface enhanced laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry. Clin Cancer Res. 2002;8:2541-2552.
122. Smith DS, Catalona WJ. The nature of prostate cancer detected through prostate specific antigen based screening. J Urol. 1994;152(5 Pt 2):1732-1736.
123. Epstein J, Walsh P, Carmichael M, Brendler C. Pathologic and clinical findings to predict tumor extent of nonpalpable (stage Tlc) prostate cancer. JAMA. 1994;271(5):368-374.
124. Stamey TA, Freiha FS, McNeal JE, Redwine EA, Whittemore AS, Schmid HP. Localized prostate cancer. Relationship of tumor volume to clinical significance for treatment of prostate cancer. Cancer. 1993;71(3 Suppl):933-938.
125. Dugan J, Bostwick D, Myers R, Qian J, Bergstralh E, Oesterling J. The definition and preoperative prediction of clinically insignificant prostate cancer. JAMA. 1996; 275(4):288-294.