From mass higher education to universal access: The American advantage

Minerva

Volumn 37, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 303-328

  Trow, Martin ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 4143071512     PISSN: 00264695     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/a:1004708520977     Document Type: Article

References (58)

1. Trow, M., "Problems in the Transition from Elite to Mass Higher Education", in Policies for Higher Education, from the General Report on the Conference on Future Structures of Post-Secondary Education (Paris: OECD, 1974), pp. 55-101.
2. Muller, Steven, "The Management of the Modern University", in Müller-Böling, Detlef et al. (eds), University in Transition (Güttersloh: Bertelsmann Foundation Publishers, 1998), pp. 222-230. That view was echoed by Berkeley's chancellor Robert Berdahl at his inauguration in April 1998, and by President Gerhard Casper of Stanford at Berkeley on the same day.
3. Edwards, Kenneth, New Technologies for Teaching and Learning, Association of European Universities, CRE Guide No. 1 (April 1998), p. 25.
4. E.g., "I have [been] talking about the great success story of higher education in the United States. By contrast, the public K-12 system has been a disaster, a shocking deterioration of a once quite competent enterprise." Pings, Cornelius, "The Ongoing Evolution of the American Research University", in Müller-Böling, D. et al. (eds), University in Transition, op. cit., p. 69.
5. This process is explored in Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P. and Trow, M., The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies (London: Sage Publications, 1994).
6. E.g., in 1997 the chancellor of the University of California at Berkeley observed that in his university "industrial funding is moving up the research stream", and described the process in detail. See Tien, Chang-Lin, "Research Funding and its Effect on the Research Agenda", in Müller-Böling, D. et al. (eds), University in Transition, op. cit., pp. 45-46.
7. On European academics see Fulton, Oliver, "Unity or Fragmentation, Convergence or Diversity", in Bowen, William and Shapiro, Harold (eds), Universities and Their Leadership (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).
8. For the United States, see Clark, B.R., "Small Worlds, Different Worlds: The Uniqueness and Troubles of American Academic Professions", Daedalus, CXXVI (Fall 1997), pp. 21-42, esp. pp. 31-37.
9. Clark Kerr is the most notable critic of these trends, on which most commentators agree. See his "Knowledge, Ethics and the New Academic Culture", pt IV, Higher Education Cannot Escape History: Issues for the Twenty-First Century (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994), pp. 131-156.
10. On the ambivalence of some senior administrators in American research universities about external research links and consulting, see Rosovsky, Henry with Amer, Inge-Lise, "A Neglected Topic: Professional Conduct of College and University Teachers", in Bowen, W.G. and Shapiro, H.T. (eds), Universities and Their Leadership, op. cit., p. 123.
11. Trow, M., "Problems in the Transition from Elite to Mass Higher Education", Universities and Their Leadership, op. cit. While national systems can be broadly described in terms of these development phases, individual institutions may provide education across all these categories, though in different proportions.
12. See Gibbons, M. et al., The New Production of Knowledge, op. cit.
13. See Trow, M., "American Perspectives on British Higher Education under Thatcher and Major", Oxford Review of Education (Winter 1998), pp. 111-129.
14. See, e.g., Olsen, Florence, "'Virtual' Institutions Challenge Accreditors to Devise New Ways of Measuring Quality", Chronicle of Higher Education (6 August, 1999); nd http://chronicle.com/ free/v45/i48/48a02901.htm
15. On the origins of the American system see Trow, M., "Federalism in American Higher Education", in Levine, Arthur (ed.), Higher Learning in America: 1980-2000 (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 39-67.
16. National Association of Scholars, The Dissolution of General Education: 1914-1993 (Princeton, 1999); and http://www.nas.org/study.html
17. The Dissolution of General Education: 1914-1993 (1999) http://www.nas.org/study.html Ibid.
18. Gibbons, M. et al., The New Production of Knowledge, op. cit.
19. See Trow, M., "Class, Race and Higher Education in the United States", in Diamond, Larry and Marks, Gary (eds), Democracy in Comparative Perspective (London: Sage Publications, 1992), pp. 275-293.
20. Others might suggest that the massive growth in federal support for university-based research, starting really during the Second World War, also qualifies as a major structural change, at least in support for the system. But the principle of federal support for research was in place much earlier; here we can debate when quantitative becomes qualitative change.
21. On structural and funding problems in European universities, see "The Decline of German Universities", Science, CCLXXVII (12 July, 1996), pp. 172-174;
22. articles on higher education in Europe in Science, ibid. (2 February, 1996), including "European Union";
23. see also "U.S.-Style Universities for Germany?", in Science, ibid., CCLXXX (19 June, 1998), pp. 1826-1827.
24. See "France: An Elite System Struggles with Mass Education", Science, CCLXXVI (2 February, 1996).
25. Mayer, Evelies, "Whom Do German Universities Now Serve?", in Ash, Mitchell G. (ed.), German Universities Past and Future (Oxford and Providence: Berghahn Books, 1997), p. 192. See also essays in this volume, many of which stress the continuing power of the Humboldtian ethos to block reforms needed for the transition to mass higher education.
26. Künzel, Rainer, "Political Control and Funding", in German Universities Past and Future ibid., p. 173. Much the same could be said about the motives behind the interventions by British governments over the past two decades.
27. For important exceptions, and perhaps precursors of the future, see Clark, B.R., Creating Entrepreneurial Universities: Organizational Pathways of Transformation (Oxford: Pergamon/IAU Press, 1998).
28. See "U.S.-Style Universities for Germany?", Creating Entrepreneurial Universities: Organizational Pathways of Transformation op. cit.
29. For analysis of Japanese higher education, see Amano, Ikuo, "Education in a More Affluent Japan", Assessment in Education, IV, 1 (1997), pp. 51-66,
30. his "Structural Changes in Japan's Higher Education System: From a Planning to a Market Model", Higher Education, XXXIV (1997), pp. 125-139.
31. See also Arimoto, Akiro, "Massification of Higher Education and Academic Reforms in Japan", in Academic Reforms in the World, Research Institute for Higher Education, International Seminar Reports no. 10 (Hiroshima University, July 1997), pp. 21-55;
32. Kitamura, Kazayuki, "Policy Issue in Japanese Higher Education", Higher Education, XXXIV (1997), pp. 141-150;
33. Teichler, Ulrich, "Higher Education in Japan", in Burgen, Arnold (ed.), Goals and Purposes of Higher Education in the 21st Century (London: Jessica Kingsley, 1996), pp. 192-209.
34. OECD, Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, Education At A Glance: OECD Indicators, 1996. Of course, there is some private support for British universities; e.g., Warwick, Oxford and Cambridge, LSE, gain substantial support from the sale of services, college endowments, tuition fees from overseas students, etc. But it is unlikely that they add up to more than the percentage from private sources for German and French universities.
35. National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (Dearing Report), 1997, Appendix 5, Section 10, "The Role and Background to Higher Education in Europe", para. 10.32.
36. See, e.g., Schiesel, Seth, "Jumping Off the Bandwidth Wagon", The New York Times, 11 July, 1999,
37. See Freedom to Publish [on demand] Our Cultural Diversity (Council of Europe, 1999).
38. See also Malcolm, Andrew, "A Very Short Run: The Arrival of 'Print on Demand'" and "The Future of the Publisher-Author Relationship", Times Literary Supplement, 18 June, 1999, pp. 14-15.
39. "Freedom to Publish", Times Literary Supplement, op. cit., p. 11.
40. "E-Commerce", The New York Times, 22 September 1999, Section D, pp. 1-69.
41. "Science Fiction Power for the PC", International Herald-Tribune, 16 July, 1998, pp. 1, 10.
42. My colleagues on this project are Dr Diane Harley of the Center for Studies in Higher Education at Berkeley, and Dr Gary Matkin, associate director of UC Berkeley Extension. The first fruits of our work can be found in Trow, Martin, "The Development of Information Technology in American Higher Education", Daedalus, CXX (Fall 1997), pp. 293-314,
43. "Lifelong Learning Through the New Information Technologies", Higher Education Policy, XII (1999), pp. 201-217.
44. The bearing of the diversity of higher education on distance learning deserves separate treatment. A beginning can be found in Trow, M., "The Development of Information Technology", Higher Education Policy, op. cit., esp. pp. 294-298.
45. See also Clark, B.R., "Small Worlds, Different Worlds: The Uniqueness and Troubles of American Academic Professions", in Daedalus, CXX (Fall 1997), pp. 21-42.
46. Bollag, Burton, "In Europe, Workers and Professionals Head Back to the Classroom", Chronicle of Higher Education (3 September, 1999), p. A87.
47. Bollag, Burton, "In Europe, Workers and Professionals Head Back to the Classroom", Chronicle of Higher Education (1999), p. A87. Ibid.
48. Quoted in Hofstadter, Richard and Smith, Wilson (eds), American Higher Education: A Documentary History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), p. 555.
49. On the involvement of state and land-grant universities in distance learning, see Kellogg Commission on the Future of State and Land-Grant Universities, Returning to Our Roots: A Learning Society (September 1999).
50. Rudolph, Frederick, The American College and University (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962), pp. 363-365.
51. These themes are developed in my "Lifelong Learning Through the New Information Technologies", The American College and University op. cit.
52. Snow, C.P., The Two Cultures: And a Second Look (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964).
53. Himmelfarb, Gertrude, "Revolution in the Library", The American Scholar (Spring 1997), p. 204.
54. Muller, S., "The Management of the Modern University", The American Scholar op. cit.
55. Himmelfarb, G., "Revolution in the Library", The American Scholar op. cit. The spread of "books on demand" over the Web may somewhat reconcile the concerns of humanists with the new technologies.
56. Himmelfarb, G., "Revolution in the Library", The American Scholar Ibid.
57. Trow, M., "Problems in the Transition from Elite to Mass Higher Education", The American Scholar op. cit.
58. For earlier concerns about the impact of mass on elite higher education, see Trow, M., "Elite Higher Education: An Endangered Species?", Minerva, XIV (Autumn 1976), pp. 355-376.