Flesh and the free market: (On taking Bourdieu to the options exchange)

Theory and Society

Volumn 32, Issue 5-6, 2003, Pages 679-723

  Widick, Richard ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 4143050333     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/b:ryso.0000004950.74462.26     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. A Google worldwide directory search lists 116 stock exchanges, 34 commodities exchanges, and five options exchanges, although undoubtedly there are more. Many stock exchanges trade options and commodities as well. The number of trading floors and of traders is therefore quite small relative to other professional fields, but the central role of the markets in organizing contemporary economies should multiply our interest in their specific logic.
2. From 1983 through 1985, I worked as a floor clerk and then broker's assistant on the options trading floor at what was then called the Pacific Stock Exchange (PSE) and is now called the Pacific Exchange (PCX). I returned in 1994 for field research, during which time I conducted interviews and observations on the trading floor, immersed myself in the traders' own literary microcosm, and reflected at length on my continual relations with traders since the mid-1980s. Having lived and worked on the scene, I had the knowledge and contacts needed to secure privileged access to the trading floor. During a year of advance work and three months of intensive field work, in which I received a daily visitor's pass several times a week, I was able to hang around on the trading floor, talk to traders about trading, watch them trade for hours, hit the street for lunch and cocktails after work, make new contacts, and arrange in-depth, tape-recorded interviews. I had countless conversations on the trading floor, in the bars of San Francisco's financial district, and at the homes of traders in the city. In our long and diverse conversations, traders talked freely with me, another white man who had been there before. In addition, four in-depth interviews were recorded, each lasting between one-and-one-half and two-and-one-half hours. Three of the interviewees were white male traders with current floor trading memberships, presently trading for a living on the options floor. The fourth interviewee was a white woman who had quit the industry after only two years, having decided not to take the exam required to advance from being a trader's assistant to a licensed floor trader.
3. For an early and influential review of practice theory in anthropology, and beyond, see Sheri Ortner, "Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties," in Nicholas B. Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sheri B. Ortner, editors, Culture/Power/History: A Reader In Contemporary Social Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984). Also important in the emergent field, Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984) and Michele de Certeau's The Practice Of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). But Pierre Bourdieu's theoretical statement in The Logic of Practice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990) is perhaps most important, and his Introduction to Reflexive Sociology (with Loïc J. D. Wacquant, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) is a quick route into the central questions of practice theory. Secondary sources are too numerous to list but several deserve special mention; Craig Calhoun's "Habitus, Field and Capital: The Question of Historical Specificity," in Craig Calhoun, Edward LiPuma, and Moishe Postone, editors, Bourdieu: Critical Perspectives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), as well as the rest of the volume; David Swartz, Culture and Power: The Sociology of Pierre Bourdieu (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1977); Jeffery Alexander, in "The reality of reduction; the failed synthesis of Pierre Bourdieu," Fin de Siècle social theory; relativism, reduction and the problem of reason, Jeffrey Alexander, editor (London: Verso, 1995).
4. For an early and influential review of practice theory in anthropology, and beyond, see Sheri Ortner, "Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties," in Nicholas B. Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sheri B. Ortner, editors, Culture/Power/History: A Reader In Contemporary Social Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984). Also important in the emergent field, Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984) and Michele de Certeau's The Practice Of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). But Pierre Bourdieu's theoretical statement in The Logic of Practice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990) is perhaps most important, and his Introduction to Reflexive Sociology (with Loïc J. D. Wacquant, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) is a quick route into the central questions of practice theory. Secondary sources are too numerous to list but several deserve special mention; Craig Calhoun's "Habitus, Field and Capital: The Question of Historical Specificity," in Craig Calhoun, Edward LiPuma, and Moishe Postone, editors, Bourdieu: Critical Perspectives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), as well as the rest of the volume; David Swartz, Culture and Power: The Sociology of Pierre Bourdieu (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1977); Jeffery Alexander, in "The reality of reduction; the failed synthesis of Pierre Bourdieu," Fin de Siècle social theory; relativism, reduction and the problem of reason, Jeffrey Alexander, editor (London: Verso, 1995).
5. For an early and influential review of practice theory in anthropology, and beyond, see Sheri Ortner, "Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties," in Nicholas B. Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sheri B. Ortner, editors, Culture/Power/History: A Reader In Contemporary Social Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984). Also important in the emergent field, Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984) and Michele de Certeau's The Practice Of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). But Pierre Bourdieu's theoretical statement in The Logic of Practice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990) is perhaps most important, and his Introduction to Reflexive Sociology (with Loïc J. D. Wacquant, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) is a quick route into the central questions of practice theory. Secondary sources are too numerous to list but several deserve special mention; Craig Calhoun's "Habitus, Field and Capital: The Question of Historical Specificity," in Craig Calhoun, Edward LiPuma, and Moishe Postone, editors, Bourdieu: Critical Perspectives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), as well as the rest of the volume; David Swartz, Culture and Power: The Sociology of Pierre Bourdieu (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1977); Jeffery Alexander, in "The reality of reduction; the failed synthesis of Pierre Bourdieu," Fin de Siècle social theory; relativism, reduction and the problem of reason, Jeffrey Alexander, editor (London: Verso, 1995).
6. For an early and influential review of practice theory in anthropology, and beyond, see Sheri Ortner, "Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties," in Nicholas B. Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sheri B. Ortner, editors, Culture/Power/History: A Reader In Contemporary Social Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984). Also important in the emergent field, Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984) and Michele de Certeau's The Practice Of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). But Pierre Bourdieu's theoretical statement in The Logic of Practice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990) is perhaps most important, and his Introduction to Reflexive Sociology (with Loïc J. D. Wacquant, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) is a quick route into the central questions of practice theory. Secondary sources are too numerous to list but several deserve special mention; Craig Calhoun's "Habitus, Field and Capital: The Question of Historical Specificity," in Craig Calhoun, Edward LiPuma, and Moishe Postone, editors, Bourdieu: Critical Perspectives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), as well as the rest of the volume; David Swartz, Culture and Power: The Sociology of Pierre Bourdieu (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1977); Jeffery Alexander, in "The reality of reduction; the failed synthesis of Pierre Bourdieu," Fin de Siècle social theory; relativism, reduction and the problem of reason, Jeffrey Alexander, editor (London: Verso, 1995).
7. For an early and influential review of practice theory in anthropology, and beyond, see Sheri Ortner, "Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties," in Nicholas B. Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sheri B. Ortner, editors, Culture/Power/History: A Reader In Contemporary Social Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984). Also important in the emergent field, Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984) and Michele de Certeau's The Practice Of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). But Pierre Bourdieu's theoretical statement in The Logic of Practice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990) is perhaps most important, and his Introduction to Reflexive Sociology (with Loïc J. D. Wacquant, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) is a quick route into the central questions of practice theory. Secondary sources are too numerous to list but several deserve special mention; Craig Calhoun's "Habitus, Field and Capital: The Question of Historical Specificity," in Craig Calhoun, Edward LiPuma, and Moishe Postone, editors, Bourdieu: Critical Perspectives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), as well as the rest of the volume; David Swartz, Culture and Power: The Sociology of Pierre Bourdieu (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1977); Jeffery Alexander, in "The reality of reduction; the failed synthesis of Pierre Bourdieu," Fin de Siècle social theory; relativism, reduction and the problem of reason, Jeffrey Alexander, editor (London: Verso, 1995).
8. For an early and influential review of practice theory in anthropology, and beyond, see Sheri Ortner, "Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties," in Nicholas B. Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sheri B. Ortner, editors, Culture/Power/History: A Reader In Contemporary Social Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984). Also important in the emergent field, Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984) and Michele de Certeau's The Practice Of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). But Pierre Bourdieu's theoretical statement in The Logic of Practice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990) is perhaps most important, and his Introduction to Reflexive Sociology (with Loïc J. D. Wacquant, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) is a quick route into the central questions of practice theory. Secondary sources are too numerous to list but several deserve special mention; Craig Calhoun's "Habitus, Field and Capital: The Question of Historical Specificity," in Craig Calhoun, Edward LiPuma, and Moishe Postone, editors, Bourdieu: Critical Perspectives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), as well as the rest of the volume; David Swartz, Culture and Power: The Sociology of Pierre Bourdieu (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1977); Jeffery Alexander, in "The reality of reduction; the failed synthesis of Pierre Bourdieu," Fin de Siècle social theory; relativism, reduction and the problem of reason, Jeffrey Alexander, editor (London: Verso, 1995).
9. For an early and influential review of practice theory in anthropology, and beyond, see Sheri Ortner, "Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties," in Nicholas B. Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sheri B. Ortner, editors, Culture/Power/History: A Reader In Contemporary Social Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984). Also important in the emergent field, Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984) and Michele de Certeau's The Practice Of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). But Pierre Bourdieu's theoretical statement in The Logic of Practice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990) is perhaps most important, and his Introduction to Reflexive Sociology (with Loïc J. D. Wacquant, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) is a quick route into the central questions of practice theory. Secondary sources are too numerous to list but several deserve special mention; Craig Calhoun's "Habitus, Field and Capital: The Question of Historical Specificity," in Craig Calhoun, Edward LiPuma, and Moishe Postone, editors, Bourdieu: Critical Perspectives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), as well as the rest of the volume; David Swartz, Culture and Power: The Sociology of Pierre Bourdieu (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1977); Jeffery Alexander, in "The reality of reduction; the failed synthesis of Pierre Bourdieu," Fin de Siècle social theory; relativism, reduction and the problem of reason, Jeffrey Alexander, editor (London: Verso, 1995).
10. For an early and influential review of practice theory in anthropology, and beyond, see Sheri Ortner, "Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties," in Nicholas B. Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sheri B. Ortner, editors, Culture/Power/History: A Reader In Contemporary Social Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984). Also important in the emergent field, Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984) and Michele de Certeau's The Practice Of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). But Pierre Bourdieu's theoretical statement in The Logic of Practice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990) is perhaps most important, and his Introduction to Reflexive Sociology (with Loïc J. D. Wacquant, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) is a quick route into the central questions of practice theory. Secondary sources are too numerous to list but several deserve special mention; Craig Calhoun's "Habitus, Field and Capital: The Question of Historical Specificity," in Craig Calhoun, Edward LiPuma, and Moishe Postone, editors, Bourdieu: Critical Perspectives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), as well as the rest of the volume; David Swartz, Culture and Power: The Sociology of Pierre Bourdieu (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1977); Jeffery Alexander, in "The reality of reduction; the failed synthesis of Pierre Bourdieu," Fin de Siècle social theory; relativism, reduction and the problem of reason, Jeffrey Alexander, editor (London: Verso, 1995).
11. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), originally published 1979, 373-374.
12. See Roger Friedland and Bob Alford, "Bringing Society Back In: Symbols, Practices, and Institutional Contradictions," in W. Powell and P. DiMaggio, The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 232-235. Friedland and Alford describe the advance of rational action assumptions within the social sciences. "The most radical retreat from [the category of] society [in social theory]," they argue, "has been toward the instrumental, rational individual, whose choices in myriad exchanges are seen as the primary cause of social arrangements. Public-choice theory, agency theory, rational-actor models, and the new institutional economics all reflect this premise." Rational action theory, rational choice theory, interest theory, and game theory are among the numerous names given to this methodological and ultimately philosophical approach to the "human" component of the "human sciences." See also Sheri Ortner, "Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties," 394-395. Ortner identified "interest theory" as the dominant theory of motivation in the practice anthropology of the 1980s, describing how it posits "an essentially individualistic, and somewhat aggressive, actor, self-interested, rational, pragmatic, and perhaps with a maximizing orientation as well. What actors do, it is assumed, is rationally go after what they want, and what they want is materially and politically useful for them within the context of their cultural and historical situations."
13. See Roger Friedland and Bob Alford, "Bringing Society Back In: Symbols, Practices, and Institutional Contradictions," in W. Powell and P. DiMaggio, The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 232-235. Friedland and Alford describe the advance of rational action assumptions within the social sciences. "The most radical retreat from [the category of] society [in social theory]," they argue, "has been toward the instrumental, rational individual, whose choices in myriad exchanges are seen as the primary cause of social arrangements. Public-choice theory, agency theory, rational-actor models, and the new institutional economics all reflect this premise." Rational action theory, rational choice theory, interest theory, and game theory are among the numerous names given to this methodological and ultimately philosophical approach to the "human" component of the "human sciences." See also Sheri Ortner, "Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties," 394-395. Ortner identified "interest theory" as the dominant theory of motivation in the practice anthropology of the 1980s, describing how it posits "an essentially individualistic, and somewhat aggressive, actor, self-interested, rational, pragmatic, and perhaps with a maximizing orientation as well. What actors do, it is assumed, is rationally go after what they want, and what they want is materially and politically useful for them within the context of their cultural and historical situations."
14. Herbert Marcuse, Theodore Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, Eric Fromm, Leo Lowenthal, and ultimately Jürgen Habermas rely in their writing predominantly on Freudian concepts in descriptions of the subject. Marcuse was especially keen on describing the condition of industrial society in terms of its influence on unconscious process; his historicization of the Freudian reality principle in the concept of an historically prevailing performance principle, and its expression in the rise of One Dimensional Man, anticipated volumes of emerging social theory and influenced a generation of youth counter-culture. See Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Boston: Beacon Press 1955) throughout, but especially 35; One Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964); and the less well-known Five Lectures (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), especially "Freedom and Freud's Instinct Theory" and "Progress and Freud's Theory of Instincts." In addition to these lectures by Marcuse, Theodore Adorno's two-part "Sociology and Psychology" (Part I, The New Left Review 46 (1968): 67-80, and Part II, The New Left Review 47 (1968): 79-97) shows the force and direction of the critical Freudian approach to the question of dialectical exchange that Bourdieu is describing. In "Psychoanalysis and Social Theory," the last chapter of Knowledge and Human Interests, trans. J. Shapiro (Beacon Press: Boston, 1968, 1971), 274-275, Jürgen Habermas restated the basis of the psychoanalytic direction in critical social theory: "Freud conceived of sociology as applied psychology.... Furthermore the superego, constructed on the basis of substitutive identifications with the expectations of primary reference persons, ensures that there is no immediate confrontation between an ego governed by wishes and the reality of external nature. The reality that the ego comes up against and which makes the instinctual impulses leading to conflict appear as a source of danger is the system of self-preservation, that is, society, whose institutional demands upon the emergent individual are represented by the parents." Joel Whitebook's Perversion and Utopia: A Study in Psychoanalysis and Critical Theory (Cambridge and London: The MIT Press, 1996) should be required reading for students of this direction in critical theory; see especially his comments on Marcuse's performance principle, pages 24-41.
15. Herbert Marcuse, Theodore Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, Eric Fromm, Leo Lowenthal, and ultimately Jürgen Habermas rely in their writing predominantly on Freudian concepts in descriptions of the subject. Marcuse was especially keen on describing the condition of industrial society in terms of its influence on unconscious process; his historicization of the Freudian reality principle in the concept of an historically prevailing performance principle, and its expression in the rise of One Dimensional Man, anticipated volumes of emerging social theory and influenced a generation of youth counter-culture. See Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Boston: Beacon Press 1955) throughout, but especially 35; One Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964); and the less well-known Five Lectures (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), especially "Freedom and Freud's Instinct Theory" and "Progress and Freud's Theory of Instincts." In addition to these lectures by Marcuse, Theodore Adorno's two-part "Sociology and Psychology" (Part I, The New Left Review 46 (1968): 67-80, and Part II, The New Left Review 47 (1968): 79-97) shows the force and direction of the critical Freudian approach to the question of dialectical exchange that Bourdieu is describing. In "Psychoanalysis and Social Theory," the last chapter of Knowledge and Human Interests, trans. J. Shapiro (Beacon Press: Boston, 1968, 1971), 274-275, Jürgen Habermas restated the basis of the psychoanalytic direction in critical social theory: "Freud conceived of sociology as applied psychology.... Furthermore the superego, constructed on the basis of substitutive identifications with the expectations of primary reference persons, ensures that there is no immediate confrontation between an ego governed by wishes and the reality of external nature. The reality that the ego comes up against and which makes the instinctual impulses leading to conflict appear as a source of danger is the system of self-preservation, that is, society, whose institutional demands upon the emergent individual are represented by the parents." Joel Whitebook's Perversion and Utopia: A Study in Psychoanalysis and Critical Theory (Cambridge and London: The MIT Press, 1996) should be required reading for students of this direction in critical theory; see especially his comments on Marcuse's performance principle, pages 24-41.
16. Herbert Marcuse, Theodore Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, Eric Fromm, Leo Lowenthal, and ultimately Jürgen Habermas rely in their writing predominantly on Freudian concepts in descriptions of the subject. Marcuse was especially keen on describing the condition of industrial society in terms of its influence on unconscious process; his historicization of the Freudian reality principle in the concept of an historically prevailing performance principle, and its expression in the rise of One Dimensional Man, anticipated volumes of emerging social theory and influenced a generation of youth counter-culture. See Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Boston: Beacon Press 1955) throughout, but especially 35; One Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964); and the less well-known Five Lectures (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), especially "Freedom and Freud's Instinct Theory" and "Progress and Freud's Theory of Instincts." In addition to these lectures by Marcuse, Theodore Adorno's two-part "Sociology and Psychology" (Part I, The New Left Review 46 (1968): 67-80, and Part II, The New Left Review 47 (1968): 79-97) shows the force and direction of the critical Freudian approach to the question of dialectical exchange that Bourdieu is describing. In "Psychoanalysis and Social Theory," the last chapter of Knowledge and Human Interests, trans. J. Shapiro (Beacon Press: Boston, 1968, 1971), 274-275, Jürgen Habermas restated the basis of the psychoanalytic direction in critical social theory: "Freud conceived of sociology as applied psychology.... Furthermore the superego, constructed on the basis of substitutive identifications with the expectations of primary reference persons, ensures that there is no immediate confrontation between an ego governed by wishes and the reality of external nature. The reality that the ego comes up against and which makes the instinctual impulses leading to conflict appear as a source of danger is the system of self-preservation, that is, society, whose institutional demands upon the emergent individual are represented by the parents." Joel Whitebook's Perversion and Utopia: A Study in Psychoanalysis and Critical Theory (Cambridge and London: The MIT Press, 1996) should be required reading for students of this direction in critical theory; see especially his comments on Marcuse's performance principle, pages 24-41.
17. Herbert Marcuse, Theodore Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, Eric Fromm, Leo Lowenthal, and ultimately Jürgen Habermas rely in their writing predominantly on Freudian concepts in descriptions of the subject. Marcuse was especially keen on describing the condition of industrial society in terms of its influence on unconscious process; his historicization of the Freudian reality principle in the concept of an historically prevailing performance principle, and its expression in the rise of One Dimensional Man, anticipated volumes of emerging social theory and influenced a generation of youth counter-culture. See Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Boston: Beacon Press 1955) throughout, but especially 35; One Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964); and the less well-known Five Lectures (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), especially "Freedom and Freud's Instinct Theory" and "Progress and Freud's Theory of Instincts." In addition to these lectures by Marcuse, Theodore Adorno's two-part "Sociology and Psychology" (Part I, The New Left Review 46 (1968): 67-80, and Part II, The New Left Review 47 (1968): 79-97) shows the force and direction of the critical Freudian approach to the question of dialectical exchange that Bourdieu is describing. In "Psychoanalysis and Social Theory," the last chapter of Knowledge and Human Interests, trans. J. Shapiro (Beacon Press: Boston, 1968, 1971), 274-275, Jürgen Habermas restated the basis of the psychoanalytic direction in critical social theory: "Freud conceived of sociology as applied psychology.... Furthermore the superego, constructed on the basis of substitutive identifications with the expectations of primary reference persons, ensures that there is no immediate confrontation between an ego governed by wishes and the reality of external nature. The reality that the ego comes up against and which makes the instinctual impulses leading to conflict appear as a source of danger is the system of self-preservation, that is, society, whose institutional demands upon the emergent individual are represented by the parents." Joel Whitebook's Perversion and Utopia: A Study in Psychoanalysis and Critical Theory (Cambridge and London: The MIT Press, 1996) should be required reading for students of this direction in critical theory; see especially his comments on Marcuse's performance principle, pages 24-41.
18. Herbert Marcuse, Theodore Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, Eric Fromm, Leo Lowenthal, and ultimately Jürgen Habermas rely in their writing predominantly on Freudian concepts in descriptions of the subject. Marcuse was especially keen on describing the condition of industrial society in terms of its influence on unconscious process; his historicization of the Freudian reality principle in the concept of an historically prevailing performance principle, and its expression in the rise of One Dimensional Man, anticipated volumes of emerging social theory and influenced a generation of youth counter-culture. See Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Boston: Beacon Press 1955) throughout, but especially 35; One Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964); and the less well-known Five Lectures (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), especially "Freedom and Freud's Instinct Theory" and "Progress and Freud's Theory of Instincts." In addition to these lectures by Marcuse, Theodore Adorno"s two-part "Sociology and Psychology" (Part I, The New Left Review 46 (1968): 67-80, and Part II, The New Left Review 47 (1968): 79-97) shows the force and direction of the critical Freudian approach to the question of dialectical exchange that Bourdieu is describing. In "Psychoanalysis and Social Theory," the last chapter of Knowledge and Human Interests, trans. J. Shapiro (Beacon Press: Boston, 1968, 1971), 274-275, Jürgen Habermas restated the basis of the psychoanalytic direction in critical social theory: "Freud conceived of sociology as applied psychology.... Furthermore the superego, constructed on the basis of substitutive identifications with the expectations of primary reference persons, ensures that there is no immediate confrontation between an ego governed by wishes and the reality of external nature. The reality that the ego comes up against and which makes the instinctual impulses leading to conflict appear as a source of danger is the system of self-preservation, that is, society, whose institutional demands upon the emergent individual are represented by the parents." Joel Whitebook's Perversion and Utopia: A Study in Psychoanalysis and Critical Theory (Cambridge and London: The MIT Press, 1996) should be required reading for students of this direction in critical theory; see especially his comments on Marcuse's performance principle, pages 24-41.
19. Herbert Marcuse, Theodore Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, Eric Fromm, Leo Lowenthal, and ultimately Jürgen Habermas rely in their writing predominantly on Freudian concepts in descriptions of the subject. Marcuse was especially keen on describing the condition of industrial society in terms of its influence on unconscious process; his historicization of the Freudian reality principle in the concept of an historically prevailing performance principle, and its expression in the rise of One Dimensional Man, anticipated volumes of emerging social theory and influenced a generation of youth counter-culture. See Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Boston: Beacon Press 1955) throughout, but especially 35; One Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964); and the less well-known Five Lectures (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), especially "Freedom and Freud's Instinct Theory" and "Progress and Freud's Theory of Instincts." In addition to these lectures by Marcuse, Theodore Adorno's two-part "Sociology and Psychology" (Part I, The New Left Review 46 (1968): 67-80, and Part II, The New Left Review 47 (1968): 79-97) shows the force and direction of the critical Freudian approach to the question of dialectical exchange that Bourdieu is describing. In "Psychoanalysis and Social Theory," the last chapter of Knowledge and Human Interests, trans. J. Shapiro (Beacon Press: Boston, 1968, 1971), 274-275, Jürgen Habermas restated the basis of the psychoanalytic direction in critical social theory: "Freud conceived of sociology as applied psychology.... Furthermore the superego, constructed on the basis of substitutive identifications with the expectations of primary reference persons, ensures that there is no immediate confrontation between an ego governed by wishes and the reality of external nature. The reality that the ego comes up against and which makes the instinctual impulses leading to conflict appear as a source of danger is the system of self-preservation, that is, society, whose institutional demands upon the emergent individual are represented by the parents." Joel Whitebook's Perversion and Utopia: A Study in Psychoanalysis and Critical Theory (Cambridge and London: The MIT Press, 1996) should be required reading for students of this direction in critical theory; see especially his comments on Marcuse's performance principle, pages 24-41.
20. Herbert Marcuse, Theodore Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, Eric Fromm, Leo Lowenthal, and ultimately Jürgen Habermas rely in their writing predominantly on Freudian concepts in descriptions of the subject. Marcuse was especially keen on describing the condition of industrial society in terms of its influence on unconscious process; his historicization of the Freudian reality principle in the concept of an historically prevailing performance principle, and its expression in the rise of One Dimensional Man, anticipated volumes of emerging social theory and influenced a generation of youth counter-culture. See Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Boston: Beacon Press 1955) throughout, but especially 35; One Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964); and the less well-known Five Lectures (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), especially "Freedom and Freud's Instinct Theory" and "Progress and Freud's Theory of Instincts." In addition to these lectures by Marcuse, Theodore Adorno's two-part "Sociology and Psychology" (Part I, The New Left Review 46 (1968): 67-80, and Part II, The New Left Review 47 (1968): 79-97) shows the force and direction of the critical Freudian approach to the question of dialectical exchange that Bourdieu is describing. In "Psychoanalysis and Social Theory," the last chapter of Knowledge and Human Interests, trans. J. Shapiro (Beacon Press: Boston, 1968, 1971), 274-275, Jürgen Habermas restated the basis of the psychoanalytic direction in critical social theory: "Freud conceived of sociology as applied psychology.... Furthermore the superego, constructed on the basis of substitutive identifications with the expectations of primary reference persons, ensures that there is no immediate confrontation between an ego governed by wishes and the reality of external nature. The reality that the ego comes up against and which makes the instinctual impulses leading to conflict appear as a source of danger is the system of self-preservation, that is, society, whose institutional demands upon the emergent individual are represented by the parents." Joel Whitebook's Perversion and Utopia: A Study in Psychoanalysis and Critical Theory (Cambridge and London: The MIT Press, 1996) should be required reading for students of this direction in critical theory; see especially his comments on Marcuse's performance principle, pages 24-41.
21. Herbert Marcuse, Theodore Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, Eric Fromm, Leo Lowenthal, and ultimately Jürgen Habermas rely in their writing predominantly on Freudian concepts in descriptions of the subject. Marcuse was especially keen on describing the condition of industrial society in terms of its influence on unconscious process; his historicization of the Freudian reality principle in the concept of an historically prevailing performance principle, and its expression in the rise of One Dimensional Man, anticipated volumes of emerging social theory and influenced a generation of youth counter-culture. See Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Boston: Beacon Press 1955) throughout, but especially 35; One Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964); and the less well-known Five Lectures (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), especially "Freedom and Freud's Instinct Theory" and "Progress and Freud's Theory of Instincts." In addition to these lectures by Marcuse, Theodore Adorno"s two-part "Sociology and Psychology" (Part I, The New Left Review 46 (1968): 67-80, and Part II, The New Left Review 47 (1968): 79-97) shows the force and direction of the critical Freudian approach to the question of dialectical exchange that Bourdieu is describing. In "Psychoanalysis and Social Theory," the last chapter of Knowledge and Human Interests, trans. J. Shapiro (Beacon Press: Boston, 1968, 1971), 274-275, Jürgen Habermas restated the basis of the psychoanalytic direction in critical social theory: "Freud conceived of sociology as applied psychology.... Furthermore the superego, constructed on the basis of substitutive identifications with the expectations of primary reference persons, ensures that there is no immediate confrontation between an ego governed by wishes and the reality of external nature. The reality that the ego comes up against and which makes the instinctual impulses leading to conflict appear as a source of danger is the system of self-preservation, that is, society, whose institutional demands upon the emergent individual are represented by the parents." Joel Whitebook's Perversion and Utopia: A Study in Psychoanalysis and Critical Theory (Cambridge and London: The MIT Press, 1996) should be required reading for students of this direction in critical theory; see especially his comments on Marcuse's performance principle, pages 24-41.
22. In An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, 1-69, Loïc J. D. Wacquant described Bourdieu's theoretical apparatus variously as a "generative structuralism," a "genetic structuralism," a "social praexiology," and a "historicist rationalism." Each of these terms is intended to express the necessity of thinking beyond the orthodox binaries inscribed in various subjectivist and objectivist sociologies (i.e., mind/body, phenomenology/structuralism, agency/structure, freedom/determinism).
23. Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, but also see descriptions of the various fields in Pierre Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), throughout, but especially 55-61 and 162-175; "The Force of Law: Toward a Sociology of the Juridical Field," Hastings Law Journal 38 (July 1987): 805-853; Homo Academicus (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984, 1988), especially his comments on psychoanalysis in chapter one, 22-23; for Bourdieu's earlier descriptions, see "Systems of Education and Systems of Thought" and "Intellectual Field and Creative Project," Knowledge And Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, Michael F. D. Young, editor (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1971), and Outline of a Theory of Practice, translated by Richard Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972, 1977).
24. Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, but also see descriptions of the various fields in Pierre Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), throughout, but especially 55-61 and 162-175; "The Force of Law: Toward a Sociology of the Juridical Field," Hastings Law Journal 38 (July 1987): 805-853; Homo Academicus (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984, 1988), especially his comments on psychoanalysis in chapter one, 22-23; for Bourdieu's earlier descriptions, see "Systems of Education and Systems of Thought" and "Intellectual Field and Creative Project," Knowledge And Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, Michael F. D. Young, editor (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1971), and Outline of a Theory of Practice, translated by Richard Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972, 1977).
25. Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, but also see descriptions of the various fields in Pierre Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), throughout, but especially 55-61 and 162-175; "The Force of Law: Toward a Sociology of the Juridical Field," Hastings Law Journal 38 (July 1987): 805-853; Homo Academicus (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984, 1988), especially his comments on psychoanalysis in chapter one, 22-23; for Bourdieu's earlier descriptions, see "Systems of Education and Systems of Thought" and "Intellectual Field and Creative Project," Knowledge And Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, Michael F. D. Young, editor (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1971), and Outline of a Theory of Practice, translated by Richard Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972, 1977).
26. Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, but also see descriptions of the various fields in Pierre Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), throughout, but especially 55-61 and 162-175; "The Force of Law: Toward a Sociology of the Juridical Field," Hastings Law Journal 38 (July 1987): 805-853; Homo Academicus (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984, 1988), especially his comments on psychoanalysis in chapter one, 22-23; for Bourdieu's earlier descriptions, see "Systems of Education and Systems of Thought" and "Intellectual Field and Creative Project," Knowledge And Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, Michael F. D. Young, editor (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1971), and Outline of a Theory of Practice, translated by Richard Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972, 1977).
27. Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, but also see descriptions of the various fields in Pierre Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), throughout, but especially 55-61 and 162-175; "The Force of Law: Toward a Sociology of the Juridical Field," Hastings Law Journal 38 (July 1987): 805-853; Homo Academicus (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984, 1988), especially his comments on psychoanalysis in chapter one, 22-23; for Bourdieu's earlier descriptions, see "Systems of Education and Systems of Thought" and "Intellectual Field and Creative Project," Knowledge And Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, Michael F. D. Young, editor (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1971), and Outline of a Theory of Practice, translated by Richard Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972, 1977).
28. Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, but also see descriptions of the various fields in Pierre Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), throughout, but especially 55-61 and 162-175; "The Force of Law: Toward a Sociology of the Juridical Field," Hastings Law Journal 38 (July 1987): 805-853; Homo Academicus (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984, 1988), especially his comments on psychoanalysis in chapter one, 22-23; for Bourdieu's earlier descriptions, see "Systems of Education and Systems of Thought" and "Intellectual Field and Creative Project," Knowledge And Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, Michael F. D. Young, editor (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1971), and Outline of a Theory of Practice, translated by Richard Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972, 1977).
29. Quotations in this paragraph are from throughout Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology.
30. Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic Of Practice, 146.
31. The Logic of Practice, 69-70. On this point, see also Sheri Ortner's "Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties," 392: "In two recent works in anthropology that explicitly attempt to elaborate a practice-based model (Bourdieu 1978 [1972]; and Sahlins 1981)," she wrote, "The authors nominally take a French structuralist view of the system (patterns of relations between categories, and of relations between relations). In fact, however, both Bourdieu's habitus and Sahlin's "cosmological dramas" behave in many ways like the American concept of culture, combining elements of ethos, affect, and value with more strictly cognitive schemes of classification."
32. The Logic of Practice, 69-70. On this point, see also Sheri Ortner's "Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties," 392: "In two recent works in anthropology that explicitly attempt to elaborate a practice-based model (Bourdieu 1978 [1972]; and Sahlins 1981)," she wrote, "The authors nominally take a French structuralist view of the system (patterns of relations between categories, and of relations between relations). In fact, however, both Bourdieu's habitus and Sahlin's 'cosmological dramas' behave in many ways like the American concept of culture, combining elements of ethos, affect, and value with more strictly cognitive schemes of classification."
33. Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Waquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, 127.
34. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction, 372-396. See also Craig Calhoun, "Habitus, Field and Capital: The Question of Historical Specificity," 73-74. Calhoun argues that Bourdieu understands the interested, economizing agent to be a historical construction, a product of history. Bourdieu's adoption of "the language of economizing strategies," Calhoun points out, "is careful to show that the economizing was not that of individuals understood discretely, but inhered in the habitus as a social creation." Thus, economism or calculation for Bourdieu is part of the social situation of agency; it is "built into the practical play of the game," and thus gets inscribed in the bodies of agents as the durable dispositions of habitus. Strategizing behavior is decentered in this perspective onto the practical, non-discursive action of the socially situated and cognitively motivated agent, making the economizer a practical maximizer as opposed to a rational, conscious, decision-making maximizer.
35. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction, 372-396. See also Craig Calhoun, "Habitus, Field and Capital: The Question of Historical Specificity," 73-74. Calhoun argues that Bourdieu understands the interested, economizing agent to be a historical construction, a product of history. Bourdieu's adoption of "the language of economizing strategies," Calhoun points out, "is careful to show that the economizing was not that of individuals understood discretely, but inhered in the habitus as a social creation." Thus, economism or calculation for Bourdieu is part of the social situation of agency; it is "built into the practical play of the game," and thus gets inscribed in the bodies of agents as the durable dispositions of habitus. Strategizing behavior is decentered in this perspective onto the practical, non-discursive action of the socially situated and cognitively motivated agent, making the economizer a practical maximizer as opposed to a rational, conscious, decision-making maximizer.
36. Pierre Bourdieu, in Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, 117.
37. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction, 86.
38. Pierre Bourdieu, in Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, 126-127.
39. Pierre Bourdieu, in Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, 133, 135. Bourdieu continues, "From that follows an inevitable priority of originary experiences and consequently a relative closure of the system of dispositions that constitute habitus. (Aging, for instance, may be conceived as the closure of these structures: the mental and bodily schemata of a person who ages become more and more rigid, less and less responsive to external solicitations)," 133-134.
40. Pierre Bourdieu, in Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, 133, 135.
41. In "Aspects of Structural and Processual Theories of Knowledge," Critical Perspectives, 96-97, Aaron Cicourel notes that although in Bourdieu's earlier work with Passeron "the notion of structure dominates the conceptual issues at all times, there does not appear to be any clear sense of how process affects structure and vice versa. The recipient of process, therefore, is like an empty black box. This earlier theoretical view remains within the confines of the classical structural tradition, despite the fact that Bourdieu and Passeron are being critical of the classical French structuralist point of view. More recent work, like Outline and Distinction, avoids the rather mechanistic notion of 'inculcation' and instead seems to prefer terms like 'incorporation' or 'embodiment.'" But is it in fact the case that the mechanistic notions and descriptions are left behind? Or is it rather that description is added to description? The later in Bourdieu's work that we look, the closer and closer he is moving toward energetic, dynamic, and psychoanalytic descriptions of habitus, but cognitive inculcation remains omnipresent. Cicourel also points out that such "Structural and processual theories of knowledge tend to under-represent the cognitive and semantic basis for their claims to the meanings that both acknowledge as essential for their respective perspectives.... The task of identifying, much less describing, the experiences of participating in surveys or experimentally with those being studied is seldom an explicit part of the structural, processual, and cognitive-linguistic approaches to theories of knowledge," 99.
42. Pierre Bourdieu, in Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, 135.
43. Distinction, 11.
44. Pierre Bourdieu, in Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, 136-137.
45. Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, 69.
46. Powell and DiMaggio, The New Institutionalism In Organizational Analysis (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1991), 25.
47. Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio, The New Institutionalism In Organizational Analysis, 15.
48. For less enthusiastic accounts of cognitive and experimental psychology, see Albert H. Hastorf and Alice M. Isen, Cognitive Social Psychology (New York: Elsevier/North-Holland, 1982); John Bowers, "All Hail the Great Abstraction: Star Wars and the Politics of Cognitive Psychology," Deconstructing Social Psychology, Ian Parker and John Shotter, editors (London and New York: Routledge, 1990); Michael Billig, "Rhetoric of Social Psychology," Deconstructing Social Psychology; John Shotter, "Social Individuality Versus Possessive Individualism: The Sounds of Silence," Deconstructing Social Psychology; and Paul Kline, Psychology Exposed or The Emperor's New Clothes (London and New York: Routledge, 1988).
49. For less enthusiastic accounts of cognitive and experimental psychology, see Albert H. Hastorf and Alice M. Isen, Cognitive Social Psychology (New York: Elsevier/North-Holland, 1982); John Bowers, "All Hail the Great Abstraction: Star Wars and the Politics of Cognitive Psychology," Deconstructing Social Psychology, Ian Parker and John Shotter, editors (London and New York: Routledge, 1990); Michael Billig, "Rhetoric of Social Psychology," Deconstructing Social Psychology; John Shotter, "Social Individuality Versus Possessive Individualism: The Sounds of Silence," Deconstructing Social Psychology; and Paul Kline, Psychology Exposed or The Emperor's New Clothes (London and New York: Routledge, 1988).
50. For less enthusiastic accounts of cognitive and experimental psychology, see Albert H. Hastorf and Alice M. Isen, Cognitive Social Psychology (New York: Elsevier/North-Holland, 1982); John Bowers, "All Hail the Great Abstraction: Star Wars and the Politics of Cognitive Psychology," Deconstructing Social Psychology, Ian Parker and John Shotter, editors (London and New York: Routledge, 1990); Michael Billig, "Rhetoric of Social Psychology," Deconstructing Social Psychology; John Shotter, "Social Individuality Versus Possessive Individualism: The Sounds of Silence," Deconstructing Social Psychology; and Paul Kline, Psychology Exposed or The Emperor's New Clothes (London and New York: Routledge, 1988).
51. For less enthusiastic accounts of cognitive and experimental psychology, see Albert H. Hastorf and Alice M. Isen, Cognitive Social Psychology (New York: Elsevier/North-Holland, 1982); John Bowers, "All Hail the Great Abstraction: Star Wars and the Politics of Cognitive Psychology," Deconstructing Social Psychology, Ian Parker and John Shotter, editors (London and New York: Routledge, 1990); Michael Billig, "Rhetoric of Social Psychology," Deconstructing Social Psychology; John Shotter, "Social Individuality Versus Possessive Individualism: The Sounds of Silence," Deconstructing Social Psychology; and Paul Kline, Psychology Exposed or The Emperor's New Clothes (London and New York: Routledge, 1988).
52. For less enthusiastic accounts of cognitive and experimental psychology, see Albert H. Hastorf and Alice M. Isen, Cognitive Social Psychology (New York: Elsevier/North-Holland, 1982); John Bowers, "All Hail the Great Abstraction: Star Wars and the Politics of Cognitive Psychology," Deconstructing Social Psychology, Ian Parker and John Shotter, editors (London and New York: Routledge, 1990); Michael Billig, "Rhetoric of Social Psychology," Deconstructing Social Psychology; John Shotter, "Social Individuality Versus Possessive Individualism: The Sounds of Silence," Deconstructing Social Psychology; and Paul Kline, Psychology Exposed or The Emperor's New Clothes (London and New York: Routledge, 1988).
53. Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio, The New Institutionalism In Organizational Analysis, 26.
54. Paul DiMaggio, "Culture and Cognition," Annual Review of Sociology 23 (1997): 263-287.
55. Eviatar Zerubavel, Social Mindscapes: An Invitation to Cognitive Sociology (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997), throughout, but especially 1-22.
56. On the emergence of cognitive science, see John Brockman, "Philosophy in the Flesh: A Talk with George Lakoff," Qué es un Cuerpo? A Parte Rei 14 (April 2001): 1-13.
57. Cognitivism has grown into an immense professional field in recent decades, effecting great debates and differentiations within the discipline; but something has remained constant - its core axis of experimental practice, information processing metaphors, commitment to reductionism, environmental cues for the activation of schemata (DiMaggio, "Culture and Cognition"), and aversion to psychoanalysis. On directions in cognitive science that take better account, in my view, of images and see minds working through metaphor, see, for example, Michael Kimmel, "Penetrating into the Heart of Darkness: an image-schematic plot-gene and its relation to the Victorian self-schema," VIEWZ 10/1 (June 2001): 7-33; also George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Philosophy in the flesh: the embodied mind and its challenge to Western thought (New York: Basic Books, 1999).
58. Cognitivism has grown into an immense professional field in recent decades, effecting great debates and differentiations within the discipline; but something has remained constant - its core axis of experimental practice, information processing metaphors, commitment to reductionism, environmental cues for the activation of schemata (DiMaggio, "Culture and Cognition"), and aversion to psychoanalysis. On directions in cognitive science that take better account, in my view, of images and see minds working through metaphor, see, for example, Michael Kimmel, "Penetrating into the Heart of Darkness: an image-schematic plot-gene and its relation to the Victorian self-schema," VIEWZ 10/1 (June 2001): 7-33; also George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Philosophy in the flesh: the embodied mind and its challenge to Western thought (New York: Basic Books, 1999).
59. Jean-Francois Fourny, "Bourdieu's Uneasy Psychoanalysis," Substance 93 (2000): 103-112.
60. Pierre Bourdieu, Practical Reason (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994, 1998), ix, n. 1.
61. Practical Reason, 76.
62. Ibid., 78.
63. Ibid., 78.
64. Ibid., 78-79.
65. Pierre Bourdieu, Pascalian Meditations (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997, 2000), 166.
66. Ibid., 167. Bourdieu's reference to Popper's "Oedipus effect" is instructive. He cites K. Popper, The Poverty of Historicism (second edition, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961), 13. In Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963), 33-39, Popper explained his twist on Freud's Oedipus that Bourdieu adapted: "Years ago I introduced the term
67. Ibid., 167. Bourdieu's reference to Popper's "Oedipus effect" is instructive. He cites K. Popper, The Poverty of Historicism (second edition, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961), 13. In Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963), 33-39, Popper explained his twist on Freud's Oedipus that Bourdieu adapted: "Years ago I introduced the term 'Oedipus effect' to describe the influence of a theory or expectation or prediction upon the event which it predicts or describes: it will be remembered that the causal chain leading to Oedipus' parricide was started by the oracle's prediction of this event. This is a characteristic and recurrent theme of such myths, but one which seems to have failed to attract the interest of the analysts, perhaps not accidentally. (The problem of confirmatory dreams suggested by the analyst is discussed by Freud, for example in Gesammelte Schriften, III, 1925, where he says on page 315: 'If anybody asserts that most of the dreams which can be utilized in an analysis ... owe their origin to [the analyst's] suggestion, then no objection can be made from the point of view of analytic theory. Yet there is nothing in this fact,' he surprisingly adds, 'which would detract from the reliability of our results.')."
68. Ibid., 167. Bourdieu's reference to Popper's "Oedipus effect" is instructive. He cites K. Popper, The Poverty of Historicism (second edition, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961), 13. In Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963), 33-39, Popper explained his twist on Freud's Oedipus that Bourdieu adapted: "Years ago I introduced the term 'Oedipus effect' to describe the influence of a theory or expectation or prediction upon the event which it predicts or describes: it will be remembered that the causal chain leading to Oedipus' parricide was started by the oracle's prediction of this event. This is a characteristic and recurrent theme of such myths, but one which seems to have failed to attract the interest of the analysts, perhaps not accidentally. (The problem of confirmatory dreams suggested by the analyst is discussed by Freud, for example in Gesammelte Schriften, III, 1925, where he says on page 315: 'If anybody asserts that most of the dreams which can be utilized in an analysis ... owe their origin to [the analyst's] suggestion, then no objection can be made from the point of view of analytic theory. Yet there is nothing in this fact,' he surprisingly adds, 'which would detract from the reliability of our results.')."
69. Ibid., 167. Bourdieu's reference to Popper's "Oedipus effect" is instructive. He cites K. Popper, The Poverty of Historicism (second edition, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961), 13. In Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963), 33-39, Popper explained his twist on Freud's Oedipus that Bourdieu adapted: "Years ago I introduced the term 'Oedipus effect' to describe the influence of a theory or expectation or prediction upon the event which it predicts or describes: it will be remembered that the causal chain leading to Oedipus' parricide was started by the oracle's prediction of this event. This is a characteristic and recurrent theme of such myths, but one which seems to have failed to attract the interest of the analysts, perhaps not accidentally. (The problem of confirmatory dreams suggested by the analyst is discussed by Freud, for example in Gesammelte Schriften, III, 1925, where he says on page 315: 'If anybody asserts that most of the dreams which can be utilized in an analysis ... owe their origin to [the analyst's] suggestion, then no objection can be made from the point of view of analytic theory. Yet there is nothing in this fact,' he surprisingly adds, 'which would detract from the reliability of our results.')."
70. Pierre Bourdieu, Masculine Domination (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998, 2001).
71. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction, 373-374.
72. Masculine Domination (Stanford University Press, 2001), 11
73. Ibid., 11.
74. Ibid., 11-12.
75. Personal interview.
76. Personal interview.
77. Victor Sperandeo, Trader Vic - Methods of a Wall Street Master (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1991), 6-7.
78. Personal interview.
79. Personal interview.
80. Personal interview.
81. See, for example, Alan Rubenfeld, The SuperTraders: Secrets & Successes of Wall Street's Best and Brightest (Chicago: Probus Publishing Company, 1992); Jack Schwager, Market Wizards: Interviews With Top Traders (New York: HarperBusiness, 1990); Peter Lynch, Beating the Street (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993); William Eng, Options: Trading Strategies That Work (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); Robert Rotella, The Elements of Successful Trading (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); William R. Gallacher, Winner Take All: At Top Commodity Trader Tells It Like It Is (Chicago: Probus, 1994); Alexander Elder, Trading For A Living: Psychology, Trading Tactics, Money Management (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993); Victor Sperandeo, Trader Vic - Methods of a Wall Street Master.
82. See, for example, Alan Rubenfeld, The SuperTraders: Secrets & Successes of Wall Street's Best and Brightest (Chicago: Probus Publishing Company, 1992); Jack Schwager, Market Wizards: Interviews With Top Traders (New York: HarperBusiness, 1990); Peter Lynch, Beating the Street (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993); William Eng, Options: Trading Strategies That Work (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); Robert Rotella, The Elements of Successful Trading (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); William R. Gallacher, Winner Take All: At Top Commodity Trader Tells It Like It Is (Chicago: Probus, 1994); Alexander Elder, Trading For A Living: Psychology, Trading Tactics, Money Management (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993); Victor Sperandeo, Trader Vic - Methods of a Wall Street Master.
83. See, for example, Alan Rubenfeld, The SuperTraders: Secrets & Successes of Wall Street's Best and Brightest (Chicago: Probus Publishing Company, 1992); Jack Schwager, Market Wizards: Interviews With Top Traders (New York: HarperBusiness, 1990); Peter Lynch, Beating the Street (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993); William Eng, Options: Trading Strategies That Work (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); Robert Rotella, The Elements of Successful Trading (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); William R. Gallacher, Winner Take All: At Top Commodity Trader Tells It Like It Is (Chicago: Probus, 1994); Alexander Elder, Trading For A Living: Psychology, Trading Tactics, Money Management (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993); Victor Sperandeo, Trader Vic - Methods of a Wall Street Master.
84. See, for example, Alan Rubenfeld, The SuperTraders: Secrets & Successes of Wall Street's Best and Brightest (Chicago: Probus Publishing Company, 1992); Jack Schwager, Market Wizards: Interviews With Top Traders (New York: HarperBusiness, 1990); Peter Lynch, Beating the Street (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993); William Eng, Options: Trading Strategies That Work (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); Robert Rotella, The Elements of Successful Trading (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); William R. Gallacher, Winner Take All: At Top Commodity Trader Tells It Like It Is (Chicago: Probus, 1994); Alexander Elder, Trading For A Living: Psychology, Trading Tactics, Money Management (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993); Victor Sperandeo, Trader Vic - Methods of a Wall Street Master.
85. See, for example, Alan Rubenfeld, The SuperTraders: Secrets & Successes of Wall Street's Best and Brightest (Chicago: Probus Publishing Company, 1992); Jack Schwager, Market Wizards: Interviews With Top Traders (New York: HarperBusiness, 1990); Peter Lynch, Beating the Street (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993); William Eng, Options: Trading Strategies That Work (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); Robert Rotella, The Elements of Successful Trading (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); William R. Gallacher, Winner Take All: At Top Commodity Trader Tells It Like It Is (Chicago: Probus, 1994); Alexander Elder, Trading For A Living: Psychology, Trading Tactics, Money Management (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993); Victor Sperandeo, Trader Vic - Methods of a Wall Street Master.
86. See, for example, Alan Rubenfeld, The SuperTraders: Secrets & Successes of Wall Street's Best and Brightest (Chicago: Probus Publishing Company, 1992); Jack Schwager, Market Wizards: Interviews With Top Traders (New York: HarperBusiness, 1990); Peter Lynch, Beating the Street (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993); William Eng, Options: Trading Strategies That Work (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); Robert Rotella, The Elements of Successful Trading (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); William R. Gallacher, Winner Take All: At Top Commodity Trader Tells It Like It Is (Chicago: Probus, 1994); Alexander Elder, Trading For A Living: Psychology, Trading Tactics, Money Management (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993); Victor Sperandeo, Trader Vic - Methods of a Wall Street Master.
87. See, for example, Alan Rubenfeld, The SuperTraders: Secrets & Successes of Wall Street's Best and Brightest (Chicago: Probus Publishing Company, 1992); Jack Schwager, Market Wizards: Interviews With Top Traders (New York: HarperBusiness, 1990); Peter Lynch, Beating the Street (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993); William Eng, Options: Trading Strategies That Work (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); Robert Rotella, The Elements of Successful Trading (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); William R. Gallacher, Winner Take All: At Top Commodity Trader Tells It Like It Is (Chicago: Probus, 1994); Alexander Elder, Trading For A Living: Psychology, Trading Tactics, Money Management (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993); Victor Sperandeo, Trader Vic - Methods of a Wall Street Master.
88. See, for example, Alan Rubenfeld, The SuperTraders: Secrets & Successes of Wall Street's Best and Brightest (Chicago: Probus Publishing Company, 1992); Jack Schwager, Market Wizards: Interviews With Top Traders (New York: HarperBusiness, 1990); Peter Lynch, Beating the Street (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993); William Eng, Options: Trading Strategies That Work (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); Robert Rotella, The Elements of Successful Trading (Dearborn: Financial Publishing Company, 1992); William R. Gallacher, Winner Take All: At Top Commodity Trader Tells It Like It Is (Chicago: Probus, 1994); Alexander Elder, Trading For A Living: Psychology, Trading Tactics, Money Management (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993); Victor Sperandeo, Trader Vic - Methods of a Wall Street Master.
89. Jack Schwager, Market Wizards, 356.
90. Ibid., 356.
91. Ibid., Market Wizards, 384.
92. Edwin Lefevre, Reminiscences of a Stock Operator (New York: George H. Doran Company, 1923).
93. Jack Schwager, Market Wizards, 347.
94. Edwin Lefebvre, Reminiscences of a Stock Operator, 130-131.
95. Alan Rubenfeld, The SuperTraders, xi.
96. Ibid., xi, my emphasis.
97. George Angell, Winning In The Futures Markets (Chicago: Probus, 1990), 1.
98. Alexander Elder, Trading For A Living, 1.
99. The concept of ego-ideal first appeared in Freud's "On Narcissism: An Introduction," Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud,Vol. 14, James Strachey, editor (London: Hogarth Press, 1975); see also The Ego and the Id, Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 19, James Strachey, editor (London Hogarth: Press, 1975) and Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1922 [1959]). Joel Whitebook's Perversion and Utopia: A Study in Psychoanalysis and Critical Theory includes an excellent discussion of the concept as developed by later psychoanalysts, including Heinz Kohut and Janine Chasseguet-Smirgel.
100. The concept of ego-ideal first appeared in Freud's "On Narcissism: An Introduction," Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud,Vol. 14, James Strachey, editor (London: Hogarth Press, 1975); see also The Ego and the Id, Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 19, James Strachey, editor (London Hogarth: Press, 1975) and Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1922 [1959]). Joel Whitebook's Perversion and Utopia: A Study in Psychoanalysis and Critical Theory includes an excellent discussion of the concept as developed by later psychoanalysts, including Heinz Kohut and Janine Chasseguet-Smirgel.
101. The concept of ego-ideal first appeared in Freud's "On Narcissism: An Introduction," Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud,Vol. 14, James Strachey, editor (London: Hogarth Press, 1975); see also The Ego and the Id, Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 19, James Strachey, editor (London Hogarth: Press, 1975) and Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1922 [1959]). Joel Whitebook's Perversion and Utopia: A Study in Psychoanalysis and Critical Theory includes an excellent discussion of the concept as developed by later psychoanalysts, including Heinz Kohut and Janine Chasseguet-Smirgel.
102. The concept of ego-ideal first appeared in Freud's "On Narcissism: An Introduction," Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud,Vol. 14, James Strachey, editor (London: Hogarth Press, 1975); see also The Ego and the Id, Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 19, James Strachey, editor (London Hogarth: Press, 1975) and Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1922 [1959]). Joel Whitebook's Perversion and Utopia: A Study in Psychoanalysis and Critical Theory includes an excellent discussion of the concept as developed by later psychoanalysts, including Heinz Kohut and Janine Chasseguet-Smirgel.
103. See J. Laplanche and J.-B. Pontalis, The Language of Psychoanalysis (New York: W.W. Norton, 1973). This is a crucial resource for crafting working concepts in psychoanalytic theory.
104. Sigmund Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 37.
105. Ibid., 38.
106. Ibid., 37.
107. U.S. Bureau of Labor, Employment and Earnings, 1993.
108. On law, see Rosalyn Diprose, the bodies of women: ethics, embodiment and sexual difference (London and New York: Routledge, 1994); on the sciences, see Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on gender and science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); and on the women's self-defense movement, see Martha McCaughey, Real Knockouts: The Physical Feminism of Women's Self-Defense (New York: New York University Press, 1997).
109. On law, see Rosalyn Diprose, the bodies of women: ethics, embodiment and sexual difference (London and New York: Routledge, 1994); on the sciences, see Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on gender and science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); and on the women's self-defense movement, see Martha McCaughey, Real Knockouts: The Physical Feminism of Women's Self-Defense (New York: New York University Press, 1997).
110. On law, see Rosalyn Diprose, the bodies of women: ethics, embodiment and sexual difference (London and New York: Routledge, 1994); on the sciences, see Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on gender and science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); and on the women's self-defense movement, see Martha McCaughey, Real Knockouts: The Physical Feminism of Women's Self-Defense (New York: New York University Press, 1997).
111. See, for instance, Judith Butler, Bodies That Matter: On The Discursive Limits Of "Sex" (London and New York: Routledge, 1995).
112. See Anthony Giddens, The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993); Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991); The Consequences Of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990); The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, structure and contradiction in social analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press); and Jacques Lacan, "Some Reflections on the Ego," The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 34 (1953, 11-17): 13.
113. See Anthony Giddens, The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993); Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991); The Consequences Of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990); The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, structure and contradiction in social analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press); and Jacques Lacan, "Some Reflections on the Ego," The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 34 (1953, 11-17): 13.
114. See Anthony Giddens, The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993); Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991); The Consequences Of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990); The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, structure and contradiction in social analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press); and Jacques Lacan, "Some Reflections on the Ego," The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 34 (1953, 11-17): 13.
115. See Anthony Giddens, The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993); Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991); The Consequences Of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990); The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, structure and contradiction in social analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press); and Jacques Lacan, "Some Reflections on the Ego," The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 34 (1953, 11-17): 13.
116. See Anthony Giddens, The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993); Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991); The Consequences Of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990); The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, structure and contradiction in social analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press); and Jacques Lacan, "Some Reflections on the Ego," The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 34 (1953, 11-17): 13.
117. See Anthony Giddens, The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993); Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991); The Consequences Of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990); The Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, structure and contradiction in social analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press); and Jacques Lacan, "Some Reflections on the Ego," The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 34 (1953, 11-17): 13.
118. Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, 68-69. More fully: "Practical belief is not a 'state of mind,' still less a kind of arbitrary adherence to a set of instituted dogmas and doctrines ('beliefs'), but rather a state of the body. Doxa is a state of immediate adherence that is established in practice between a habitus and the field to which it is attuned, the pre-verbal taking for granted of the world that flows from practical sense. Enacted belief, instilled by the childhood learning that treats the body as a kind of living memory pad, an automaton that 'leads the mind unconsciously along with it,' and as a repository of the most precious values ... is the product of quasi-bodily dispositions, operational schemes...."
119. Sigmund Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 63.