War, philanthropy, and the National Institute of Hygiene in France

Minerva

Volumn 41, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 1-23

  Schneider, William H ^a,b,c,d  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b School of Liberal Arts   (United States)

^c Section of Trauma Burns and Critical Care   (United States)

^d Indiana University   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 4143050329     PISSN: 00264695     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1022257805553     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. The recent interpretation of the Vichy period began with Henry Rousso's, Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991). For an early response, see Kim Munholland, 'Wartime France: Reading Vichy', French Historical Studies, 18 (1994), 801-820.
2. The recent interpretation of the Vichy period began with Henry Rousso's, Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991). For an early response, see Kim Munholland, 'Wartime France: Reading Vichy', French Historical Studies, 18 (1994), 801-820.
3. See Yves Saint-James, 'France', in Peter A. Kohler and Hans F. Zacher (eds.), The Evolution of Social Insurance, 1881-1981: Studies of Germany, France, Great Britain, Austria and Switzerland (New York: St. Martins Press on behalf of the Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches und Internationales Sozialrecht, 1982), 120-126; Bruno Valat, 'Resistance et Securité Sociale, 1941-1944', Revue Historique, 292 (1994), 315-346; and Haroun Jamous, Sociologie de la décision. La réforme des études médicales et des structures hospitalières (Paris: Editions du CNRS, 1969). Some studies have stressed the continuity of French public health and medical reform from the inter-war period through the Second World War and afterwards. See, for example, Pierre Guillaume, Le rôle social du médecin depuis deux siècles (1800-1945), (Paris: Association pour l'étude de l'histoire de la Sécurité sociale, 1996); Bénédicte Vergez, 'Internes et anciens internes des hôpitaux de Paris de 1918 à 1945' (Unpublished PhD dissertation, Institut d'études Politique de Paris (IEP), 1995); and Timothy B. Smith, 'The Social Transformation of Hospitals and the Rise of Medical Insurance in France, 1914-1943', Historical Journal, 41 (1998), 1055-1087.
4. See Yves Saint-James, 'France', in Peter A. Kohler and Hans F. Zacher (eds.), The Evolution of Social Insurance, 1881-1981: Studies of Germany, France, Great Britain, Austria and Switzerland (New York: St. Martins Press on behalf of the Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches und Internationales Sozialrecht, 1982), 120-126; Bruno Valat, 'Resistance et Securité Sociale, 1941-1944', Revue Historique, 292 (1994), 315-346; and Haroun Jamous, Sociologie de la décision. La réforme des études médicales et des structures hospitalières (Paris: Editions du CNRS, 1969). Some studies have stressed the continuity of French public health and medical reform from the inter-war period through the Second World War and afterwards. See, for example, Pierre Guillaume, Le rôle social du médecin depuis deux siècles (1800-1945), (Paris: Association pour l'étude de l'histoire de la Sécurité sociale, 1996); Bénédicte Vergez, 'Internes et anciens internes des hôpitaux de Paris de 1918 à 1945' (Unpublished PhD dissertation, Institut d'études Politique de Paris (IEP), 1995); and Timothy B. Smith, 'The Social Transformation of Hospitals and the Rise of Medical Insurance in France, 1914-1943', Historical Journal, 41 (1998), 1055-1087.
5. See Yves Saint-James, 'France', in Peter A. Kohler and Hans F. Zacher (eds.), The Evolution of Social Insurance, 1881-1981: Studies of Germany, France, Great Britain, Austria and Switzerland (New York: St. Martins Press on behalf of the Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches und Internationales Sozialrecht, 1982), 120-126; Bruno Valat, 'Resistance et Securité Sociale, 1941-1944', Revue Historique, 292 (1994), 315-346; and Haroun Jamous, Sociologie de la décision. La réforme des études médicales et des structures hospitalières (Paris: Editions du CNRS, 1969). Some studies have stressed the continuity of French public health and medical reform from the inter-war period through the Second World War and afterwards. See, for example, Pierre Guillaume, Le rôle social du médecin depuis deux siècles (1800-1945), (Paris: Association pour l'étude de l'histoire de la Sécurité sociale, 1996); Bénédicte Vergez, 'Internes et anciens internes des hôpitaux de Paris de 1918 à 1945' (Unpublished PhD dissertation, Institut d'études Politique de Paris (IEP), 1995); and Timothy B. Smith, 'The Social Transformation of Hospitals and the Rise of Medical Insurance in France, 1914-1943', Historical Journal, 41 (1998), 1055-1087.
6. See Yves Saint-James, 'France', in Peter A. Kohler and Hans F. Zacher (eds.), The Evolution of Social Insurance, 1881-1981: Studies of Germany, France, Great Britain, Austria and Switzerland (New York: St. Martins Press on behalf of the Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches und Internationales Sozialrecht, 1982), 120-126; Bruno Valat, 'Resistance et Securité Sociale, 1941-1944', Revue Historique, 292 (1994), 315-346; and Haroun Jamous, Sociologie de la décision. La réforme des études médicales et des structures hospitalières (Paris: Editions du CNRS, 1969). Some studies have stressed the continuity of French public health and medical reform from the inter-war period through the Second World War and afterwards. See, for example, Pierre Guillaume, Le rôle social du médecin depuis deux siècles (1800-1945), (Paris: Association pour l'étude de l'histoire de la Sécurité sociale, 1996); Bénédicte Vergez, 'Internes et anciens internes des hôpitaux de Paris de 1918 à 1945' (Unpublished PhD dissertation, Institut d'études Politique de Paris (IEP), 1995); and Timothy B. Smith, 'The Social Transformation of Hospitals and the Rise of Medical Insurance in France, 1914-1943', Historical Journal, 41 (1998), 1055-1087.
7. See Yves Saint-James, 'France', in Peter A. Kohler and Hans F. Zacher (eds.), The Evolution of Social Insurance, 1881-1981: Studies of Germany, France, Great Britain, Austria and Switzerland (New York: St. Martins Press on behalf of the Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches und Internationales Sozialrecht, 1982), 120-126; Bruno Valat, 'Resistance et Securité Sociale, 1941-1944', Revue Historique, 292 (1994), 315-346; and Haroun Jamous, Sociologie de la décision. La réforme des études médicales et des structures hospitalières (Paris: Editions du CNRS, 1969). Some studies have stressed the continuity of French public health and medical reform from the inter-war period through the Second World War and afterwards. See, for example, Pierre Guillaume, Le rôle social du médecin depuis deux siècles (1800-1945), (Paris: Association pour l'étude de l'histoire de la Sécurité sociale, 1996); Bénédicte Vergez, 'Internes et anciens internes des hôpitaux de Paris de 1918 à 1945' (Unpublished PhD dissertation, Institut d'études Politique de Paris (IEP), 1995); and Timothy B. Smith, 'The Social Transformation of Hospitals and the Rise of Medical Insurance in France, 1914-1943', Historical Journal, 41 (1998), 1055-1087.
8. See Yves Saint-James, 'France', in Peter A. Kohler and Hans F. Zacher (eds.), The Evolution of Social Insurance, 1881-1981: Studies of Germany, France, Great Britain, Austria and Switzerland (New York: St. Martins Press on behalf of the Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches und Internationales Sozialrecht, 1982), 120-126; Bruno Valat, 'Resistance et Securité Sociale, 1941-1944', Revue Historique, 292 (1994), 315-346; and Haroun Jamous, Sociologie de la décision. La réforme des études médicales et des structures hospitalières (Paris: Editions du CNRS, 1969). Some studies have stressed the continuity of French public health and medical reform from the inter-war period through the Second World War and afterwards. See, for example, Pierre Guillaume, Le rôle social du médecin depuis deux siècles (1800-1945), (Paris: Association pour l'étude de l'histoire de la Sécurité sociale, 1996); Bénédicte Vergez, 'Internes et anciens internes des hôpitaux de Paris de 1918 à 1945' (Unpublished PhD dissertation, Institut d'études Politique de Paris (IEP), 1995); and Timothy B. Smith, 'The Social Transformation of Hospitals and the Rise of Medical Insurance in France, 1914-1943', Historical Journal, 41 (1998), 1055-1087.
9. The Foundation's influence on medicine has received a lot of attention since E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Capitalism in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979). Most scholarship on the Medical Divisions has focused on their activities in the United States. Exceptions include Marcos Cueto (ed.), Missionaries of Science: The Rockfeller Foundation and Latin America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Illana Löwy and Patrick Zylberman (eds.), Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 31 (2000), 365-510, a special issue focusing on the Foundation and public health in Europe; and William H. Schneider (ed.), Rockefeller Philanthropy and Modern Biomedicine: International Initiatives from World War I to the Cold War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002).
10. The Foundation's influence on medicine has received a lot of attention since E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Capitalism in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979). Most scholarship on the Medical Divisions has focused on their activities in the United States. Exceptions include Marcos Cueto (ed.), Missionaries of Science: The Rockfeller Foundation and Latin America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Illana Löwy and Patrick Zylberman (eds.), Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 31 (2000), 365-510, a special issue focusing on the Foundation and public health in Europe; and William H. Schneider (ed.), Rockefeller Philanthropy and Modern Biomedicine: International Initiatives from World War I to the Cold War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002).
11. The Foundation's influence on medicine has received a lot of attention since E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Capitalism in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979). Most scholarship on the Medical Divisions has focused on their activities in the United States. Exceptions include Marcos Cueto (ed.), Missionaries of Science: The Rockfeller Foundation and Latin America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Illana Löwy and Patrick Zylberman (eds.), Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 31 (2000), 365-510, a special issue focusing on the Foundation and public health in Europe; and William H. Schneider (ed.), Rockefeller Philanthropy and Modern Biomedicine: International Initiatives from World War I to the Cold War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002).
12. The Foundation's influence on medicine has received a lot of attention since E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Capitalism in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979). Most scholarship on the Medical Divisions has focused on their activities in the United States. Exceptions include Marcos Cueto (ed.), Missionaries of Science: The Rockfeller Foundation and Latin America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Illana Löwy and Patrick Zylberman (eds.), Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 31 (2000), 365-510, a special issue focusing on the Foundation and public health in Europe; and William H. Schneider (ed.), Rockefeller Philanthropy and Modern Biomedicine: International Initiatives from World War I to the Cold War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002).
13. On Rockefeller aid to French refugee scholars through the Social Sciences Division, see Emmanuelle Loyer, 'La debacle, les Universitaires et la Fondation Rockefeller: France/États-Unis, 1940-1941', Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 48 (2001), 138-158. For another private American aid organization that has recently received attention, see Sheila Isenberg, A Hero of Our Own: The Story of Varian Fry (New York: Random House, 2001); and Fry's own account, Surrender on Demand (New York: Random House, 1945).
14. On Rockefeller aid to French refugee scholars through the Social Sciences Division, see Emmanuelle Loyer, 'La debacle, les Universitaires et la Fondation Rockefeller: France/États-Unis, 1940-1941', Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 48 (2001), 138-158. For another private American aid organization that has recently received attention, see Sheila Isenberg, A Hero of Our Own: The Story of Varian Fry (New York: Random House, 2001); and Fry's own account, Surrender on Demand (New York: Random House, 1945).
15. On Rockefeller aid to French refugee scholars through the Social Sciences Division, see Emmanuelle Loyer, 'La debacle, les Universitaires et la Fondation Rockefeller: France/États-Unis, 1940-1941', Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 48 (2001), 138-158. For another private American aid organization that has recently received attention, see Sheila Isenberg, A Hero of Our Own: The Story of Varian Fry (New York: Random House, 2001); and Fry's own account, Surrender on Demand (New York: Random House, 1945).
16. For the wider setting, see Jean-François Picard, 'Aux origines de l'INSERM, l'Institut National d'Hygiène, la santé publique et la recherche médicale', Sciences sociales et santé (forthcoming).
17. Alain Drouard, 'Les trois âges de la Fondation française pour l'étude des problèmes humains', Population, 38 (1983), 1017-1037; Christophe Bonneuil and Patrick Petitjean, 'Science and French Colonial Policy: Creation of ORSTOM: from the Popular Front to the Liberation via Vichy, 1936-1947', in T. Shinn, J. Spaapen, and V.V. Krishna (eds.), Science and Technology in a Developing World (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1997), 129-178; and Philippe Mioche, Origines et démarrages de la planification en France (1941-1946), (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1987).
18. Alain Drouard, 'Les trois âges de la Fondation française pour l'étude des problèmes humains', Population, 38 (1983), 1017-1037; Christophe Bonneuil and Patrick Petitjean, 'Science and French Colonial Policy: Creation of ORSTOM: from the Popular Front to the Liberation via Vichy, 1936-1947', in T. Shinn, J. Spaapen, and V.V. Krishna (eds.), Science and Technology in a Developing World (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1997), 129-178; and Philippe Mioche, Origines et démarrages de la planification en France (1941-1946), (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1987).
19. Alain Drouard, 'Les trois âges de la Fondation française pour l'étude des problèmes humains', Population, 38 (1983), 1017-1037; Christophe Bonneuil and Patrick Petitjean, 'Science and French Colonial Policy: Creation of ORSTOM: from the Popular Front to the Liberation via Vichy, 1936-1947', in T. Shinn, J. Spaapen, and V.V. Krishna (eds.), Science and Technology in a Developing World (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1997), 129-178; and Philippe Mioche, Origines et démarrages de la planification en France (1941-1946), (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1987).
20. In addition to Guillaume, op. cit. note 2, see Lion Murard and Patrick Zylberman, L'hygiène dans la République: la santé publique en France ou l'utopie contrariée (1870-1918), (Paris: Fayard, 1996); and Jean-François Picard, La Fondation Rockefeller et la recherche médicale (Paris: PUF, 1999).
21. In addition to Guillaume, op. cit. note 2, see Lion Murard and Patrick Zylberman, L'hygiène dans la République: la santé publique en France ou l'utopie contrariée (1870-1918), (Paris: Fayard, 1996); and Jean-François Picard, La Fondation Rockefeller et la recherche médicale (Paris: PUF, 1999).
22. In addition to Guillaume, op. cit. note 2, see Lion Murard and Patrick Zylberman, L'hygiène dans la République: la santé publique en France ou l'utopie contrariée (1870-1918), (Paris: Fayard, 1996); and Jean-François Picard, La Fondation Rockefeller et la recherche médicale (Paris: PUF, 1999).
23. Murard and Zylberman, op. cit. note 7, 481-484. On French medical education in a wider international context, see Thomas N. Bonner, Becoming a Physician: Medical Education in Great Britain, France, Germany and the United States, 1750-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
24. Murard and Zylberman, op. cit. note 7, 481-484. On French medical education in a wider international context, see Thomas N. Bonner, Becoming a Physician: Medical Education in Great Britain, France, Germany and the United States, 1750-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
25. See Rockefeller Foundation Archives (New York) (hereafter RFA), RG 1.1, Series 500, Box 2, Folder 16, Rockefeller Foundation Executive Committee minutes, 22 March 1921.
26. William H. Schneider, Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth Century France (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 172.
27. RFA, RG 1.2, Series 700, Box 9, Folder 81, estimate prepared by Thomas B. Appleget, 'Rockefeller Foundation: Principal Grants in Europe', 9 July 1946.
28. Jean François Picard and William H. Schneider, 'From the Art of Medicine to Biomedical Science in France: Modernization or Americanization?', in Schneider (ed.), op. cit. note 3, 106-124.
29. Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report, 1939, 9-13.
30. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 5, Gunn to Appleget, 24 October 1939, cited in Rockefeller Foundation Health Commission Report, 27 June 1940 to 30 June 1941 (hereafter cited as the June 1941 report), 5.
31. RFA, Alan Gregg's diary, RG 12.1, interview Gustave Roussy and D.P. O'Brien, 1 March 1940.
32. See RFA, RG 12.1, Alexander Makinsky's diary, 10 June to 24 June 1940.
33. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 21, Warren to Sawyer, 24 May 1940.
34. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 21, staff conference, 29 May 1940.
35. As proof, they pointed to studies after the First World War showing that the Foundation had spent more than $22 million on emergency food and medicine plus support for the Red Cross and other relief agencies. Trustees meeting of 11 December 1934, as cited in the June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 4-5.
36. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 21, Warren to Sawyer, 10 June 1940.
37. For more on Strode, who was by far the most important member of the Commission, see 'Dr. Strode Dead: A Health Expert', New York Times, 29 October 1958, 35. For more on O'Brien, see National Library of Medecine (NLM), Alan Gregg Papers, Msc 190, Box 23.
38. For more on Strode, who was by far the most important member of the Commission, see 'Dr. Strode Dead: A Health Expert', New York Times, 29 October 1958, 35. For more on O'Brien, see National Library of Medecine (NLM), Alan Gregg Papers, Msc 190, Box 23.
39. Ibid. See also RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 21, extract from Wilbur A. Sawyer diary, 17 June 1940; Fosdick to Ray Atherton, 2 July 1940; and minutes of meeting of Rockefeller Foundation Health Commission to Europe (RFHC), 9 July 1940.
40. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 21, minutes of RFHC meeting, 9 and 11 July 1940.
41. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 22, extract from Wilbur A. Sawyer diary, 6 August 1940.
42. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 22, Chamberlain to Ferrell, 7 August 1940. Examples of other reports are RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 22 and 23, Sawyer to Chamberlain, 24 September 1940, 8 October 1940, and 6 December 1940.
43. Personal papers of André Chevallier (hereafter cited as the Chevallier Papers), Laurencie interview with Streccius, 11 September 1940. I am grateful to Marie-Françoise Chevallier, granddaughter of André Chevallier, for permission to consult these papers, which are being deposited in the archives of INSERM in Paris.
44. Bonneuil and Petitjean, op. cit. note 6, 145; Richard Kuisel, 'Vichy et les origins de la planification économique (1940-1946)', Mouvement social, 98 (1977), 77-102. For a contemporary statement of the case for health reform by a respected French surgeon, see René Leriche, 'Medicine 1941', in André Bellesort, et al. (eds.), France 1941: La Révolution nationale constructive (Paris: Editions Alsatia, 1941), 339-346.
45. Bonneuil and Petitjean, op. cit. note 6, 145; Richard Kuisel, 'Vichy et les origins de la planification économique (1940-1946)', Mouvement social, 98 (1977), 77-102. For a contemporary statement of the case for health reform by a respected French surgeon, see René Leriche, 'Medicine 1941', in André Bellesort, et al. (eds.), France 1941: La Révolution nationale constructive (Paris: Editions Alsatia, 1941), 339-346.
46. Bonneuil and Petitjean, op. cit. note 6, 145; Richard Kuisel, 'Vichy et les origins de la planification économique (1940-1946)', Mouvement social, 98 (1977), 77-102. For a contemporary statement of the case for health reform by a respected French surgeon, see René Leriche, 'Medicine 1941', in André Bellesort, et al. (eds.), France 1941: La Révolution nationale constructive (Paris: Editions Alsatia, 1941), 339-346.
47. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 22, Sawyer to Warren, 11 August 1940; Strode to Makinsky, 16 August 1940 and 26 August 1940. For the 'poor start' of the commission in Vichy, see NLM, Alan Gregg Papers, Msc 190, Box 20, Makinsky to Gregg, 30 August 1940.
48. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 22, Sawyer to Warren, 11 August 1940; Strode to Makinsky, 16 August 1940 and 26 August 1940. For the 'poor start' of the commission in Vichy, see NLM, Alan Gregg Papers, Msc 190, Box 20, Makinsky to Gregg, 30 August 1940.
49. RAF, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 22, Strode to Makinsky, 26 August 1940; excerpt of Sawyer diary, 4 September 1940.
50. June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 13-14; RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 4, Folder 28, excerpts of O'Brien's diary, 12 September, 19 September, and 21 September 1940. For more on Huard, who eventually was named Minister of Health, and exercised an important influence, see M. Roux, 'Serge Huard (1897-1944)', Paris Médical, 128 (1944), 53-54; and Guillaume, op. cit. note 2, 269-270. On the resistance of the medical community to Huard's reforms, see Vergez, op. cit. note 2, 322-361.
51. June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 13-14; RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 4, Folder 28, excerpts of O'Brien's diary, 12 September, 19 September, and 21 September 1940. For more on Huard, who eventually was named Minister of Health, and exercised an important influence, see M. Roux, 'Serge Huard (1897-1944)', Paris Médical, 128 (1944), 53-54; and Guillaume, op. cit. note 2, 269-270. On the resistance of the medical community to Huard's reforms, see Vergez, op. cit. note 2, 322-361.
52. June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 13-14; RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 4, Folder 28, excerpts of O'Brien's diary, 12 September, 19 September, and 21 September 1940. For more on Huard, who eventually was named Minister of Health, and exercised an important influence, see M. Roux, 'Serge Huard (1897-1944)', Paris Médical, 128 (1944), 53-54; and Guillaume, op. cit. note 2, 269-270. On the resistance of the medical community to Huard's reforms, see Vergez, op. cit. note 2, 322-361.
53. June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 13-14; RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 4, Folder 28, excerpts of O'Brien's diary, 12 September, 19 September, and 21 September 1940. For more on Huard, who eventually was named Minister of Health, and exercised an important influence, see M. Roux, 'Serge Huard (1897-1944)', Paris Médical, 128 (1944), 53-54; and Guillaume, op. cit. note 2, 269-270. On the resistance of the medical community to Huard's reforms, see Vergez, op. cit. note 2, 322-361.
54. June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 13-14; RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 4, Folder 28, excerpts of O'Brien's diary, 12 September, 19 September, and 21 September 1940. For more on Huard, who eventually was named Minister of Health, and exercised an important influence, see M. Roux, 'Serge Huard (1897-1944)', Paris Médical, 128 (1944), 53-54; and Guillaume, op. cit. note 2, 269-270. On the resistance of the medical community to Huard's reforms, see Vergez, op. cit. note 2, 322-361.
55. RAF, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 4, Folder 28, excerpt of Daniel P. O'Brien's diary, 9-10 September 1940. On the meeting with Codvelle and Huard, see RFA, RG 1.1 Series 700, Box 3, Folder 22, agreement of 5 September 1940; and June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 21.
56. See Schneider, op. cit. note 10, 134-145. For more on the tuberculosis campaign and French public health, see Murard and Zylberman. 'La Mission Rockefeller en France et la creation du comité nationale de defénse contre la tuberculose (1917-1923)', Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, 34 (1987), 257-281.
57. See Schneider, op. cit. note 10, 134-145. For more on the tuberculosis campaign and French public health, see Murard and Zylberman. 'La Mission Rockefeller en France et la creation du comité nationale de defénse contre la tuberculose (1917-1923)', Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, 34 (1987), 257-281.
58. For more, see Picard and Schneider, op. cit. note 12.
59. He soon left the occupied zone for Vichy, where he helped organize the medical resistance. See Anne Simonin, 'Le Comité Médical de la Résistance: un succès différé', Mouvement Social, 180 (1997), 159-178.
60. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 21, minutes of meeting of Rockefeller Foundation Health Commission to Europe, 9 July 1940.
61. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 22, Strode to Sawyer, 24 October 1940; Rockefeller Foundation Archives (New York), RG 1.2, O'Brien diary, 4 October 1940; RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 6, Folder 38, Codvelle to Strode, 7 January 1941.
62. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 22, Strode to Sawyer, 24 October 1940; Rockefeller Foundation Archives (New York), RG 1.2, O'Brien diary, 4 October 1940; RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 6, Folder 38, Codvelle to Strode, 7 January 1941.
63. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 22, Strode to Sawyer, 24 October 1940; Rockefeller Foundation Archives (New York), RG 1.2, O'Brien diary, 4 October 1940; RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 6, Folder 38, Codvelle to Strode, 7 January 1941.
64. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 22, Sawyer to Strode, 4 October and 9 October 1940. Of these, Youmans proved the most important. For his career, see R.H. Kampmeier, 'John B. Youmans (1893-1979). Biographical Sketch', Journal of Nutrition, 116 (1986), 19-35. His papers have been deposited in the National Library of Medicine (Bethesda, MD).
65. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 22, Sawyer to Strode, 4 October and 9 October 1940. Of these, Youmans proved the most important. For his career, see R.H. Kampmeier, 'John B. Youmans (1893-1979). Biographical Sketch', Journal of Nutrition, 116 (1986), 19-35. His papers have been deposited in the National Library of Medicine (Bethesda, MD).
66. Examples can be found in the Chevallier Papers, André Chevallier, 'Rapport sur l'organisation du ravitaillement de la population de la zone libre en médicaments', 20 September 1940; and 'Note du Docteur Codvelle au Professeur Chevallier: Vitamines, insuline, lait écrémé', 19 October 1940; and the 'procés verbaux of the College d'experts de la défence nationale', from 12 August to 7 September 1940.
67. Examples can be found in the Chevallier Papers, André Chevallier, 'Rapport sur l'organisation du ravitaillement de la population de la zone libre en médicaments', 20 September 1940; and 'Note du Docteur Codvelle au Professeur Chevallier: Vitamines, insuline, lait écrémé', 19 October 1940; and the 'procés verbaux of the College d'experts de la défence nationale', from 12 August to 7 September 1940.
68. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 22, Strode to Sawyer, 16 September and 26 October 1940.
69. O'Brien prepared a chronology of events in Paris between 20 August and 4 December 1940, which is quite revealing of life in occupied Paris. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 23, 'Review of Present State of Activities of the RF Commission for Health to Europe with GKS', 3-5 December 1940.
70. Details can be found in the three-volume June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14.
71. See the following correspondence in RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 23: Fosdick to Strode, 7 November 1940; Makinsky to Sawyer, 29 November 1940; and Sawyer to Strode, 6 and 11 December 1940.
72. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 23, Strode to Makinsky, 13 December 1940.
73. The best description is contained in a note from Strode to Fosdick, written while he was in Lisbon on 10 January 1941. See also RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 23, Makinsky telegram to New York office, 23 December 1940; Sawyer to Strode 26 December 1940; and Strode to Sawyer 30 December 1940.
74. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 24, Strode to Fosdick 10 January 1941.
75. For background, see William L. Langer and S. Everett Gleason, The Undeclared War, 1940-1941 (New York: Harper, 1953), 246-251; and Warren F. Kimball, The Most Unsordid Act: Lend-Lease, 1939-1941 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969).
76. For background, see William L. Langer and S. Everett Gleason, The Undeclared War, 1940-1941 (New York: Harper, 1953), 246-251; and Warren F. Kimball, The Most Unsordid Act: Lend-Lease, 1939-1941 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969).
77. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 3, Folder 24, Strode to Fosdick 17 January 1941; Sawyer to Strode 27 February 1941; for financial correspondence, see Letort to Beal, 7 February 1941; and on the 'fireside chat', see Warren to Sawyer 7 January 1941.
78. For more on Chevallier, see Picard, op. cit. note 5.
79. Chevallier received 25,000 francs from the Natural Sciences Division of the RF and 15,000 francs from the CNRS. See Chevallier Papers, Tisdale to Chevallier, 22 November 1937; and Laugier to Chevallier, 9 March 1938.
80. RFA, June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 33.
81. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 7, Folder 40, Kuhlmann to Lambert 29 November 1941. For more on Kuhlmann, see RFA, fellowship record card; and 'Titres et Travaux scientifiques de Dr. Daniel Kuhlmann', (1947), unpublished manuscript in Bibliothèque Inter-Universitaire de Médecine (Paris).
82. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 7, Folder 40, Kuhlmann to Lambert 29 November 1941. For more on Kuhlmann, see RFA, fellowship record card; and 'Titres et Travaux scientifiques de Dr. Daniel Kuhlmann', (1947), unpublished manuscript in Bibliothèque Inter-Universitaire de Médecine (Paris).
83. RFA, RG 1.1 Series 700, Box 7, Folder 40, Stuart to Strode 10 September 1942. The most complete account of the work of the institute is the June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14.
84. See, for example, Youmans, 'Observations on Nutrition in France', Transactions and Studies of the College of Physicians, Philadelphia, 9 (1941), 144-154; and Harold Stuart and Daniel Kuhlmann, 'Studies of Physical Characteristics of Children in Marseilles, France', Journal of Pediatrics, 20 (1942), 424-453. For more on methodology, see June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 40-50.
85. See, for example, Youmans, 'Observations on Nutrition in France', Transactions and Studies of the College of Physicians, Philadelphia, 9 (1941), 144-154; and Harold Stuart and Daniel Kuhlmann, 'Studies of Physical Characteristics of Children in Marseilles, France', Journal of Pediatrics, 20 (1942), 424-453. For more on methodology, see June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 40-50.
86. See, for example, Youmans, 'Observations on Nutrition in France', Transactions and Studies of the College of Physicians, Philadelphia, 9 (1941), 144-154; and Harold Stuart and Daniel Kuhlmann, 'Studies of Physical Characteristics of Children in Marseilles, France', Journal of Pediatrics, 20 (1942), 424-453. For more on methodology, see June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 40-50.
87. Two examples of widely-read summary reports based on this research are André Chevallier and Marcel Moine, 'Sur l'évolution de la mortalité en France pendant l'occupation', Bulletin de l'Académie nationale de médecine, 129 (1945), 45-48; and Harold Stuart, 'Review of Evidence as to Nutritional State of Children in France', American Journal of Public Health, 35 (1945), 299-307.
88. Two examples of widely-read summary reports based on this research are André Chevallier and Marcel Moine, 'Sur l'évolution de la mortalité en France pendant l'occupation', Bulletin de l'Académie nationale de médecine, 129 (1945), 45-48; and Harold Stuart, 'Review of Evidence as to Nutritional State of Children in France', American Journal of Public Health, 35 (1945), 299-307.
89. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 6, Folder 38, 'Brief Report on Trip to Perpignan, 21-25 January 1941', attached to a letter from Wright to Warren, 17 February 1941. Despite the Foundation's decision not to support relief work, Wright's account of the camps was so moving that a long passage was reprinted in the Trustees' Confidential Bulletin (May 1941), a copy of which can be found in RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 4, Folder 25.
90. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 6, Folder 38, 'Brief Report on Trip to Perpignan, 21-25 January 1941', attached to a letter from Wright to Warren, 17 February 1941. Despite the Foundation's decision not to support relief work, Wright's account of the camps was so moving that a long passage was reprinted in the Trustees' Confidential Bulletin (May 1941), a copy of which can be found in RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 4, Folder 25.
91. RFA, June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 54-55. For more on the Quaker relief organizations, see American Friends Service Committee in France (Philadelphia: American Friends Service Committee, 1942) and Donald S. Howard (ed.), Recent Relief Programs of the American Friends in Spain and France (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1943), 22-27.
92. RFA, June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 54-55. For more on the Quaker relief organizations, see American Friends Service Committee in France (Philadelphia: American Friends Service Committee, 1942) and Donald S. Howard (ed.), Recent Relief Programs of the American Friends in Spain and France (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1943), 22-27.
93. RFA, June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 54-55. For more on the Quaker relief organizations, see American Friends Service Committee in France (Philadelphia: American Friends Service Committee, 1942) and Donald S. Howard (ed.), Recent Relief Programs of the American Friends in Spain and France (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1943), 22-27.
94. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 6, Folder 38, Wright to Warren, 20 January 1941.
95. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 6, Folder 38, 'Proposed Sanitary Engineering Project for Marseilles Region', 12 March 1941. See also the June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 57.
96. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 6, Folder 38, 'Proposed Sanitary Engineering Project for Marseilles Region', 12 March 1941. See also the June 1941 report, op. cit. note 14, 57.
97. NLM, Alan Gregg Papers, Msc 190, Box 20, Makinsky to Gregg, 14 June 1941.
98. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 6, Folder 38, Letort memorandum, 15 January 1941.
99. NLM, Alan Gregg Papers, Msc 190, Box 1, 'Account of Dr. John B. Youmans Work in Free France' (undated). From other evidence, it appears that this note was sent by Youmans to Gounelle in preparation for Youmans' nomination as a Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur. See NLM, Alan Gregg Papers, Msc 190, Box 9, Youmans to Gounelle 10 November 1949. Youmans received the award the following year.
100. NLM, Alan Gregg Papers, Msc 190, Box 1, 'Account of Dr. John B. Youmans Work in Free France' (undated). From other evidence, it appears that this note was sent by Youmans to Gounelle in preparation for Youmans' nomination as a Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur. See NLM, Alan Gregg Papers, Msc 190, Box 9, Youmans to Gounelle 10 November 1949. Youmans received the award the following year.
101. Youmans later arranged a tour of the US for Gounelle in 1947, after the Frenchman resumed his position at the Foch Hospital. By then, Youmans was Dean of the University of Illinois Medical School. For details, see NLM, Alan Gregg Papers, Misc. 190, Box 9.
102. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 5, 'Report, Rockefeller Foundation Health Commission, July 1, 1941 to June 30, 1942', 28-30.
103. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 7, Folder 41, report attached to letter from Red Cross Vice President Richard F. Allen to Strode, 28 November 1942. Stuart later published his findings in 'Studies of Nutritional State of Children in Unoccupied France in the Fall of 1942. Preliminary Report', Journal of Pediatrics, 25 (1944), 257-264.
104. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 7, Folder 41, report attached to letter from Red Cross Vice President Richard F. Allen to Strode, 28 November 1942. Stuart later published his findings in 'Studies of Nutritional State of Children in Unoccupied France in the Fall of 1942. Preliminary Report', Journal of Pediatrics, 25 (1944), 257-264.
105. On Strode's influence in the organization of the INH, see Chevallier Papers, 'Schéma d'organisation d'un Institut National d'Hygiène' (undated, but presumably autumn, 1941).
106. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 7, Folder 46, Kuhlmann, 'Activité de la section de Nutrition', Juin 1941-Novembre 1942'; Box 8, Folder 47, 'Activity ... from 1941 to 1944', 6 July 1945.
107. RFA, RG 1.1, Series 700, Box 7, Folder 46, Kuhlmann, 'Activité de la section de Nutrition', Juin 1941-Novembre 1942'; Box 8, Folder 47, 'Activity ... from 1941 to 1944', 6 July 1945.
108. Kuhlmann, 'Étude sur l'état de nutrition de la population de Marseille', Receuil des Travaux de l'Institut d'Hygiène, 1 (1944), 273-306.
109. For more, see Picard, op. cit. note 5.
110. A summary of the work of the sections can be found in the first part of each volume of Receuil des Travaux de l'Institut d'Hygiène. See, for example, 1 (1944), 6-135.
111. Entr'aide française, Renseignments généraux sur la France après 4 ans d'occupation ennemie (Paris: Entr'aide française, 1945), 9.
112. Chevallier Papers, Draper to Billoux, 7 May 1945.
113. http://picardp1.ivry.cnrs.fr/~jfpicard/Aujaleu.html. Jean-François Picard, interview with Eugène Aujaleu (9 June 1990).
114. There were ninety-nine Rockefeller fellowships to France in biology, medicine, and public health (not counting nursing) between 1917 and 1950, most of which were awarded before the Second World War. For more on fellowships in France and the rest of Europe, see Schneider, 'The Men Who followed Flexner', op. cit. note 3, 47.