Chinese science and the 'Nobel Prize complex'

Minerva

Volumn 42, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 151-172

  Cao, Cong ^a  

^a NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE   (Singapore)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 4043157707     PISSN: 00264695     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/B:MINE.0000030020.28625.7e     Document Type: Review

References (94)

1. The Nobel Prize was set up by the will of Alfred Nobel to reward persons who have conferred benefit on mankind. The prizes for Physics, Chemistry, and Economics are awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; that for Literature, by the Swedish Academy; that for Physiology and Medicine, by the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm; and that for Peace, by a committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway.
2. See, for example, Keji ribao (Science and Technology Daily), 4 August 1998; Zhongguo kexue bao • Dongfang baodao (China Science News • East China News), 27 November 1998, 1; Lianhe zaobao (Union Morning News) (Singapore), 22 February 1999; Qiao bao • Zhongguo kexue zhoubao (China Press • The China Science Weekly) (New York), 20 August 2000, C2; Beijing chenbao (Beijing Morning News), 2 November 1999; and Zhongguo qingnian bao (China Youth News), 15 December 2000.
3. See, for example, Keji ribao (Science and Technology Daily), 4 August 1998; Zhongguo kexue bao • Dongfang baodao (China Science News • East China News), 27 November 1998, 1; Lianhe zaobao (Union Morning News) (Singapore), 22 February 1999; Qiao bao • Zhongguo kexue zhoubao (China Press • The China Science Weekly) (New York), 20 August 2000, C2; Beijing chenbao (Beijing Morning News), 2 November 1999; and Zhongguo qingnian bao (China Youth News), 15 December 2000.
4. See, for example, Keji ribao (Science and Technology Daily), 4 August 1998; Zhongguo kexue bao • Dongfang baodao (China Science News • East China News), 27 November 1998, 1; Lianhe zaobao (Union Morning News) (Singapore), 22 February 1999; Qiao bao • Zhongguo kexue zhoubao (China Press • The China Science Weekly) (New York), 20 August 2000, C2; Beijing chenbao (Beijing Morning News), 2 November 1999; and Zhongguo qingnian bao (China Youth News), 15 December 2000.
5. See, for example, Keji ribao (Science and Technology Daily), 4 August 1998; Zhongguo kexue bao • Dongfang baodao (China Science News • East China News), 27 November 1998, 1; Lianhe zaobao (Union Morning News) (Singapore), 22 February 1999; Qiao bao • Zhongguo kexue zhoubao (China Press • The China Science Weekly) (New York), 20 August 2000, C2; Beijing chenbao (Beijing Morning News), 2 November 1999; and Zhongguo qingnian bao (China Youth News), 15 December 2000.
6. See, for example, Keji ribao (Science and Technology Daily), 4 August 1998; Zhongguo kexue bao • Dongfang baodao (China Science News • East China News), 27 November 1998, 1; Lianhe zaobao (Union Morning News) (Singapore), 22 February 1999; Qiao bao • Zhongguo kexue zhoubao (China Press • The China Science Weekly) (New York), 20 August 2000, C2; Beijing chenbao (Beijing Morning News), 2 November 1999; and Zhongguo qingnian bao (China Youth News), 15 December 2000.
7. See, for example, Keji ribao (Science and Technology Daily), 4 August 1998; Zhongguo kexue bao • Dongfang baodao (China Science News • East China News), 27 November 1998, 1; Lianhe zaobao (Union Morning News) (Singapore), 22 February 1999; Qiao bao • Zhongguo kexue zhoubao (China Press • The China Science Weekly) (New York), 20 August 2000, C2; Beijing chenbao (Beijing Morning News), 2 November 1999; and Zhongguo qingnian bao (China Youth News), 15 December 2000.
8. At least one American Nobel Laureate, Paul Greengard, has expressed the belief that China's scientists will win a Nobel Prize in Science within the next 30 years. See Beijing qingnian bao (Beijing Youth News), 28 May 2002. Jan-Ake Gustafsson, chairman of the Nobel Committee for Physiology or Medicine, suggests that 'it won't take too long, perhaps ten years, for Chinese to receive a Nobel Prize'. See http://peopledaily.com.cn/GB/kejiao/42/152/20021016/843527.html (accessed 18 October 2002). China is not alone in pursuing the Nobel. Japan, for example, has devised a strategy to win 30 more prizes over the next 50 years. See Howard W. French, 'Hypothesis: A Scientific Gap. Cause: Japan's Ways', The New York Times, 7 August 2001, A6.
9. At least one American Nobel Laureate, Paul Greengard, has expressed the belief that China's scientists will win a Nobel Prize in Science within the next 30 years. See Beijing qingnian bao (Beijing Youth News), 28 May 2002. Jan-Ake Gustafsson, chairman of the Nobel Committee for Physiology or Medicine, suggests that 'it won't take too long, perhaps ten years, for Chinese to receive a Nobel Prize'. See http://peopledaily.com.cn/GB/kejiao/42/152/20021016/843527.html (accessed 18 October 2002). China is not alone in pursuing the Nobel. Japan, for example, has devised a strategy to win 30 more prizes over the next 50 years. See Howard W. French, 'Hypothesis: A Scientific Gap. Cause: Japan's Ways', The New York Times, 7 August 2001, A6.
10. At least one American Nobel Laureate, Paul Greengard, has expressed the belief that China's scientists will win a Nobel Prize in Science within the next 30 years. See Beijing qingnian bao (Beijing Youth News), 28 May 2002. Jan-Ake Gustafsson, chairman of the Nobel Committee for Physiology or Medicine, suggests that 'it won't take too long, perhaps ten years, for Chinese to receive a Nobel Prize'. See http://peopledaily.com.cn/GB/kejiao/42/152/20021016/843527.html (accessed 18 October 2002). China is not alone in pursuing the Nobel. Japan, for example, has devised a strategy to win 30 more prizes over the next 50 years. See Howard W. French, 'Hypothesis: A Scientific Gap. Cause: Japan's Ways', The New York Times, 7 August 2001, A6.
11. http://www.horizon-china.com/Firsthand/E_Firsthand58.htm (accessed 11 January 2002).
12. For further discussion, see Robert Marc Friedman, The Politics of Excellence: Behind the Nobel Prize in Science (New York: W.H. Freeman, 2001). See also Elisabeth Crawford, J.L. Heilbron, and Rebecca Ullrich, The Nobel Population, 1901-1937: A Census of the Nominators and Nominees for the Prize in Physics and Chemistry (Berkeley: Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California. 1987); Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States (New York: Free Press, 1977); and the special issue of Minerva, XXIX (4), (2001), devoted to the centenary of the Nobel Prize.
13. For further discussion, see Robert Marc Friedman, The Politics of Excellence: Behind the Nobel Prize in Science (New York: W.H. Freeman, 2001). See also Elisabeth Crawford, J.L. Heilbron, and Rebecca Ullrich, The Nobel Population, 1901-1937: A Census of the Nominators and Nominees for the Prize in Physics and Chemistry (Berkeley: Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California. 1987); Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States (New York: Free Press, 1977); and the special issue of Minerva, XXIX (4), (2001), devoted to the centenary of the Nobel Prize.
14. For further discussion, see Robert Marc Friedman, The Politics of Excellence: Behind the Nobel Prize in Science (New York: W.H. Freeman, 2001). See also Elisabeth Crawford, J.L. Heilbron, and Rebecca Ullrich, The Nobel Population, 1901-1937: A Census of the Nominators and Nominees for the Prize in Physics and Chemistry (Berkeley: Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California. 1987); Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States (New York: Free Press, 1977); and the special issue of Minerva, XXIX (4), (2001), devoted to the centenary of the Nobel Prize.
15. For further discussion, see Robert Marc Friedman, The Politics of Excellence: Behind the Nobel Prize in Science (New York: W.H. Freeman, 2001). See also Elisabeth Crawford, J.L. Heilbron, and Rebecca Ullrich, The Nobel Population, 1901-1937: A Census of the Nominators and Nominees for the Prize in Physics and Chemistry (Berkeley: Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California. 1987); Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States (New York: Free Press, 1977); and the special issue of Minerva, XXIX (4), (2001), devoted to the centenary of the Nobel Prize.
16. These scientists are still working in the institutions where they received the Nobel Prize, except for Yang who has retired, and Yuan Tseh Lee, who is the President of the Academia Sinica in Taiwan.
17. 'Chinese Wins of Science Century', China Daily, 30 December 1999. Other achievements are even more significant. Richard Haynes, a chemistry professor at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, argues that 'there has got to be a Nobel Prize here somewhere', referring to the Chinese discovery of the substance qinghaosu, or artemisinin, to treat malaria, still one of the world's major killer diseases. See David Lague, 'Chinese Medicine: Revolutionary Discovery', Far East Economic Review, 14 March 2002, 34-37.
18. 'Chinese Wins of Science Century', China Daily, 30 December 1999. Other achievements are even more significant. Richard Haynes, a chemistry professor at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, argues that 'there has got to be a Nobel Prize here somewhere', referring to the Chinese discovery of the substance qinghaosu, or artemisinin, to treat malaria, still one of the world's major killer diseases. See David Lague, 'Chinese Medicine: Revolutionary Discovery', Far East Economic Review, 14 March 2002, 34-37.
19. Bingan Li and Chen Ning Yang, 'C.Y. Chao, Pair Creation and Pair Annihilation', International Journal of Modern Physics A, IV (17), (1989), 4325-4335.
20. Carl D. Anderson, with Herbert L. Anderson, 'Unraveling the Particle Content of Cosmic Rays', in Laurie M. Brown and Lillian Hoddeson (eds), The Birth of Particle Physics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 131-154. Anderson also claimed that he found the anti-electron 'by accident'. See Burton Feldman, The Nobel Prize: A History of Genius, Controversy, and Prestige (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2000), 123.
21. Carl D. Anderson, with Herbert L. Anderson, 'Unraveling the Particle Content of Cosmic Rays', in Laurie M. Brown and Lillian Hoddeson (eds), The Birth of Particle Physics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 131-154. Anderson also claimed that he found the anti-electron 'by accident'. See Burton Feldman, The Nobel Prize: A History of Genius, Controversy, and Prestige (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2000), 123.
22. In 1982, Wang Ganchang and his Chinese collaborators were given the first-class prize of China's Natural Science Award for the discovery of the anti-sigma hyperon. See Yao Shuping, Luo Wei, Li Peishan, and Zhang Wei, 'Zhongguo Kexueyuan fazhan shi (A Developmental History of the Chinese Academy of Sciences)', in Qian Linzhao and Gu Yu (eds.), Zhongguo Kexueyuan (The Chinese Academy of Sciences) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1994), 3 vols; vol. 1, 1-230, on 195.
23. Bingan Li and Chen Ning Yang, 'Mr. Wang Ganchang and the Discovery of Neutrino', in Zhang Meiman (ed.), Yang Chen Ning tan kexue fazhan (Chen Ning Yang on the Development of Science) (1986; River Edge, NJ: Global Publishing, 1992), 301-311.
24. Raymond Davis Jr. and Masatoshi Koshiba were awarded another Nobel Prize in 2002 for their research on the detection of cosmic neutrinos.
25. 'Total Synthesis of Insulin in Red China', Science, 153 (15 July 1966), 281-283.
26. Chen-lu Tsou, 'Chemical Synthesis of Crystalline Bovine Insulin: A Reminiscence', Trends in Biochemical Sciences, XX (7), (1995), 289-295.
27. Ge Nengquan, Qian Sanqiang Nianpu (A Chronicle of Qian Sanqiang) (Jinan, China: Shandong youyi chubanshe, 2002), 230-232; telephone interview with Ge (20 May 2003). Wai-Ling Vivian Tsui, 'Revisiting the Insulin Project in China: The Story of the Making of the First Synthetic Protein' (unpublished Bachelor of Arts thesis, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 1994), 109-111. The Swedish scientist Tiselius and Chen Ning Yang were said to have independently suggested that Wang Yinglai, the organizer of the insulin synthesis project, be nominated for the Nobel Prize. See L. Ling-chi Wang, 'Obituary: Wang Yinglai (1907-2001)', Nature, 412 (5 July 2001), 30. But Yang indicated otherwise (personal communication, 22 August 2001). Wang Yinglai refused to become a co-author of the insulin synthesis papers. In 1982, when the achievement was given the first-class prize of China's Natural Science Award, Wang was not included. See Li Hujun, 'Shuaicai kexuejia (A Scientific Commander)', Nanfang zhoumo (Nanfang Daily Weekend), 9 August 2001; Yao Shuping et al., op. cit. note 9, on 195.
28. Ge Nengquan, Qian Sanqiang Nianpu (A Chronicle of Qian Sanqiang) (Jinan, China: Shandong youyi chubanshe, 2002), 230-232; telephone interview with Ge (20 May 2003). Wai-Ling Vivian Tsui, 'Revisiting the Insulin Project in China: The Story of the Making of the First Synthetic Protein' (unpublished Bachelor of Arts thesis, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 1994), 109-111. The Swedish scientist Tiselius and Chen Ning Yang were said to have independently suggested that Wang Yinglai, the organizer of the insulin synthesis project, be nominated for the Nobel Prize. See L. Ling-chi Wang, 'Obituary: Wang Yinglai (1907-2001)', Nature, 412 (5 July 2001), 30. But Yang indicated otherwise (personal communication, 22 August 2001). Wang Yinglai refused to become a co-author of the insulin synthesis papers. In 1982, when the achievement was given the first-class prize of China's Natural Science Award, Wang was not included. See Li Hujun, 'Shuaicai kexuejia (A Scientific Commander)', Nanfang zhoumo (Nanfang Daily Weekend), 9 August 2001; Yao Shuping et al., op. cit. note 9, on 195.
29. Ge Nengquan, Qian Sanqiang Nianpu (A Chronicle of Qian Sanqiang) (Jinan, China: Shandong youyi chubanshe, 2002), 230-232; telephone interview with Ge (20 May 2003). Wai-Ling Vivian Tsui, 'Revisiting the Insulin Project in China: The Story of the Making of the First Synthetic Protein' (unpublished Bachelor of Arts thesis, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 1994), 109-111. The Swedish scientist Tiselius and Chen Ning Yang were said to have independently suggested that Wang Yinglai, the organizer of the insulin synthesis project, be nominated for the Nobel Prize. See L. Ling-chi Wang, 'Obituary: Wang Yinglai (1907-2001)', Nature, 412 (5 July 2001), 30. But Yang indicated otherwise (personal communication, 22 August 2001). Wang Yinglai refused to become a co-author of the insulin synthesis papers. In 1982, when the achievement was given the first-class prize of China's Natural Science Award, Wang was not included. See Li Hujun, 'Shuaicai kexuejia (A Scientific Commander)', Nanfang zhoumo (Nanfang Daily Weekend), 9 August 2001; Yao Shuping et al., op. cit. note 9, on 195.
30. Ge Nengquan, Qian Sanqiang Nianpu (A Chronicle of Qian Sanqiang) (Jinan, China: Shandong youyi chubanshe, 2002), 230-232; telephone interview with Ge (20 May 2003). Wai-Ling Vivian Tsui, 'Revisiting the Insulin Project in China: The Story of the Making of the First Synthetic Protein' (unpublished Bachelor of Arts thesis, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 1994), 109-111. The Swedish scientist Tiselius and Chen Ning Yang were said to have independently suggested that Wang Yinglai, the organizer of the insulin synthesis project, be nominated for the Nobel Prize. See L. Ling-chi Wang, 'Obituary: Wang Yinglai (1907-2001)', Nature, 412 (5 July 2001), 30. But Yang indicated otherwise (personal communication, 22 August 2001). Wang Yinglai refused to become a co-author of the insulin synthesis papers. In 1982, when the achievement was given the first-class prize of China's Natural Science Award, Wang was not included. See Li Hujun, 'Shuaicai kexuejia (A Scientific Commander)', Nanfang zhoumo (Nanfang Daily Weekend), 9 August 2001; Yao Shuping et al., op. cit. note 9, on 195.
31. Ge Nengquan, Qian Sanqiang Nianpu (A Chronicle of Qian Sanqiang) (Jinan, China: Shandong youyi chubanshe, 2002), 230-232; telephone interview with Ge (20 May 2003). Wai-Ling Vivian Tsui, 'Revisiting the Insulin Project in China: The Story of the Making of the First Synthetic Protein' (unpublished Bachelor of Arts thesis, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 1994), 109-111. The Swedish scientist Tiselius and Chen Ning Yang were said to have independently suggested that Wang Yinglai, the organizer of the insulin synthesis project, be nominated for the Nobel Prize. See L. Ling-chi Wang, 'Obituary: Wang Yinglai (1907-2001)', Nature, 412 (5 July 2001), 30. But Yang indicated otherwise (personal communication, 22 August 2001). Wang Yinglai refused to become a co-author of the insulin synthesis papers. In 1982, when the achievement was given the first-class prize of China's Natural Science Award, Wang was not included. See Li Hujun, 'Shuaicai kexuejia (A Scientific Commander)', Nanfang zhoumo (Nanfang Daily Weekend), 9 August 2001; Yao Shuping et al., op. cit. note 9, on 195.
32. Chen-lu Tsou describes the research that was conducted during the same period that he and his colleagues were working on the insulin synthesis. See Tsou, op. cit. note 13.
33. Jingji ribao (Economic Daily), 2 February 2002.
34. Other fields include topology, the mechanization of mathematical proof (WU Wenjun), hybrid rice (Yuan Longping), laser typesetting systems in language and electronic publishing systems (Wang Xuan), and computing technology (Jin Yilian). See Qiao bao • Zhongguo kexue zhoubao (China Press • The China Science Weekly), 25 February 2001, C8. See also http://English. peopledaily.com.cn/200202/02/english20020202_89780.shtml (assessed 14 August 2002).
35. Other fields include topology, the mechanization of mathematical proof (WU Wenjun), hybrid rice (Yuan Longping), laser typesetting systems in language and electronic publishing systems (Wang Xuan), and computing technology (Jin Yilian). See Qiao bao • Zhongguo kexue zhoubao (China Press • The China Science Weekly), 25 February 2001, C8. See also http://English. peopledaily.com.cn/200202/02/english20020202_89780.shtml (assessed 14 August 2002).
36. See http://www.chinainfor.gov.cn/search/show_info.jsp?info_id=25561 (accessed 16 January 2002).
37. Zou Chenglu, 'Wo de kexue shengya (My Scientific Career [11])', Kexue sibao (Science Times), 11 July 2002.
38. The situation has begun to change. See Yi Rao, 'Zhongguo kexue de fazhan yu tiaozhan: yi shengming kexue zai guoji qikan shang de fabiao wei li (Advances and Challenges in Chinese Science: Chinese Life Scientists' Articles in International Journals)', Ershiyi shiji (Twenty-First Century) (Hong Kong), ILXX (February 2002), 83-94.
39. Institute for Management Development (IMD), The IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook 2002 (Lausanne, Switzerland: IMD, 2002), 627.
40. Richard P. Suttmeier and Cong Cao, 'China Faces the New Industrial Revolution: Achievement and Uncertainty in the Search for Research and Innovation Strategies', Asian Perspective, XXIII (3), (1999), 153-200.
41. The IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook 2002, op. cit. note 21.
42. Cao Changqing, 'Nuobei'er Wenxue Jiang weihe yu women wuyuan (Why Has the Nobel Prize in Literature Eluded China)', Shijie zhoukan (World Journal Weekly) (New York), 21 November 1999, 38-39. In his Nobel Lecture, 'The Case for Literature', Gao Xingjian, a Chinese writer who is now a French citizen, and the 2000 Nobel Laureate for Literature, pointed out that politics have always dictated Chinese literature. See the website of the Nobel Foundation. http://www.nobel.se/literature/2000 (accessed 13 December 2000).
43. Cao Changqing, 'Nuobei'er Wenxue Jiang weihe yu women wuyuan (Why Has the Nobel Prize in Literature Eluded China)', Shijie zhoukan (World Journal Weekly) (New York), 21 November 1999, 38-39. In his Nobel Lecture, 'The Case for Literature', Gao Xingjian, a Chinese writer who is now a French citizen, and the 2000 Nobel Laureate for Literature, pointed out that politics have always dictated Chinese literature. See the website of the Nobel Foundation. http://www.nobel.se/literature/2000 (accessed 13 December 2000).
44. Hsi-sheng Ch'i, The Politics of Disillusionment: The Chinese Communist Party under Deng Xiaoping, 1978-1989 (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1991), 126-127.
45. Michelle Hoffman, 'Lost in the Cultural Revolution', American Scientist, LXXXII (1), (1994), 18-19.
46. Richard P. Suttmeier, 'Science, Technology, and China's Political Future: A Framework for Analysis', in Denis Fred Simon and Merle Goldman (eds.), Science and Technology in Post-Mao China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), 3-20.
47. Laurence Schneider, 'Editor's Instruction', in Laurence Schneider (ed.), Lysenkoism in China: Proceedings of the 1956 Qingdao Genetics Symposium (A Special Issue of Chinese Law and Government) (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1986), iii-xxi; 'Learning from Russia: Lysenkoism and the Fate of Genetics in China, 1950-1960', in Simon and Goldman (eds.), op. cit. note 27, on 45-65.
48. Laurence Schneider, 'Editor's Instruction', in Laurence Schneider (ed.), Lysenkoism in China: Proceedings of the 1956 Qingdao Genetics Symposium (A Special Issue of Chinese Law and Government) (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1986), iii-xxi; 'Learning from Russia: Lysenkoism and the Fate of Genetics in China, 1950-1960', in Simon and Goldman (eds.), op. cit. note 27, on 45-65.
49. Zhongguo qingnian bao (China Youth News), 16 June 1958, 4.
50. Renmin ribao (People's Daily), 8 June 1969, 4; Wang Yuan, Hua Luogeng (Beijing: Kaiming chubanshe, 1994), 291-306; and Caspar Schweigman and Shuzhong Zhang, 'The Teaching of Hua Loo-Keng: A Challenge Today?' The Mathematical Intelligencer, XVI (3), (1994), 36-46, on 41-43.
51. Renmin ribao (People's Daily), 8 June 1969, 4; Wang Yuan, Hua Luogeng (Beijing: Kaiming chubanshe, 1994), 291-306; and Caspar Schweigman and Shuzhong Zhang, 'The Teaching of Hua Loo-Keng: A Challenge Today?' The Mathematical Intelligencer, XVI (3), (1994), 36-46, on 41-43.
52. Renmin ribao (People's Daily), 8 June 1969, 4; Wang Yuan, Hua Luogeng (Beijing: Kaiming chubanshe, 1994), 291-306; and Caspar Schweigman and Shuzhong Zhang, 'The Teaching of Hua Loo-Keng: A Challenge Today?' The Mathematical Intelligencer, XVI (3), (1994), 36-46, on 41-43.
53. Wendy Frieman, 'China's Military R&D System: Reform and Reorientation', in Simon and Goldman (eds.), op. cit. note 27, on 252-286.
54. Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 2: History of Scientific Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1956), 1 and 26.
55. Richard Baum, 'Science and Culture in Contemporary China: The Roots of Retarded Modernization', Asian Survey, XXII (12), (1982), 1166-1186.
56. Derk Bodde, Chinese Thought Society, and Science: The Intellectual and Social Background of Science and Technology in Pre-modern China (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1991), 179. Sivin makes the same point. See Nathan Sivin, 'Comparing Greek and Chinese Philosophy and Science', in his Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections (Aldershot: Variorum, 1995), 1-11.
57. Derk Bodde, Chinese Thought Society, and Science: The Intellectual and Social Background of Science and Technology in Pre-modern China (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1991), 179. Sivin makes the same point. See Nathan Sivin, 'Comparing Greek and Chinese Philosophy and Science', in his Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections (Aldershot: Variorum, 1995), 1-11.
58. Paula E. Stephan and Sharon G. Levin, 'Age and the Nobel Prize Revisited', Scientometrics, XXVIII (3), (1993), 387-399.
59. Confidential interview with a young life scientist, Beijing, 5 December 1998. Chen Zhu was elected a foreign associate of the US National Academy of Sciences in April 2003.
60. Zhao Hongzhou, 'Women weihe yu Nuobei'er Jiang wuyuan (Why Have the Nobel Prizes Eluded China)', Xiandaihua (Modernization), XVII (1), (1995), 7-8. In a recent talk on Chinese culture and education, Yuan Tseh Lee, now president of the Academia Sinica himself, emphasized the importance of challenging the authority in the progress of science (Hong Kong: New Asian Academy, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, 24 September 1999).
61. The cultural heritage - Confucian ideas of age grade promotion and piety toward seniors - also explains why Japan, the world's second largest economy, with its significant investment in research, has not performed well in the Nobel Prize competition. See Howard W. French, 'Hypothesis: A Scientific Gap. Conclusion: Japanese Custom' The New York Times August 2001; James R. Bartholomew, The Formation of Science in Japan: Building a Research Tradition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 1; and Morris Low, 'From Einstein to Shirakawa: The Nobel Prize in Japan', Minerva, 39 (4), (2001), 445-460. Academic inbreeding has also been serious in South Korea. See 'Academic Inbreeding Attached', Science, 282 (18 December 1998), 2165.
62. The cultural heritage - Confucian ideas of age grade promotion and piety toward seniors - also explains why Japan, the world's second largest economy, with its significant investment in research, has not performed well in the Nobel Prize competition. See Howard W. French, 'Hypothesis: A Scientific Gap. Conclusion: Japanese Custom' The New York Times August 2001; James R. Bartholomew, The Formation of Science in Japan: Building a Research Tradition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 1; and Morris Low, 'From Einstein to Shirakawa: The Nobel Prize in Japan', Minerva, 39 (4), (2001), 445-460. Academic inbreeding has also been serious in South Korea. See 'Academic Inbreeding Attached', Science, 282 (18 December 1998), 2165.
63. The cultural heritage - Confucian ideas of age grade promotion and piety toward seniors - also explains why Japan, the world's second largest economy, with its significant investment in research, has not performed well in the Nobel Prize competition. See Howard W. French, 'Hypothesis: A Scientific Gap. Conclusion: Japanese Custom' The New York Times August 2001; James R. Bartholomew, The Formation of Science in Japan: Building a Research Tradition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 1; and Morris Low, 'From Einstein to Shirakawa: The Nobel Prize in Japan', Minerva, 39 (4), (2001), 445-460. Academic inbreeding has also been serious in South Korea. See 'Academic Inbreeding Attached', Science, 282 (18 December 1998), 2165.
64. The cultural heritage - Confucian ideas of age grade promotion and piety toward seniors - also explains why Japan, the world's second largest economy, with its significant investment in research, has not performed well in the Nobel Prize competition. See Howard W. French, 'Hypothesis: A Scientific Gap. Conclusion: Japanese Custom' The New York Times August 2001; James R. Bartholomew, The Formation of Science in Japan: Building a Research Tradition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 1; and Morris Low, 'From Einstein to Shirakawa: The Nobel Prize in Japan', Minerva, 39 (4), (2001), 445-460. Academic inbreeding has also been serious in South Korea. See 'Academic Inbreeding Attached', Science, 282 (18 December 1998), 2165.
65. Zhao Hongzhou, op. cit. note 37.
66. Zuckerman, op. cit. note 4, 99-106.
67. Interviews with young scientists in Beijing and Shanghai in 1998 and 1999.
68. Ting was born in Ann Arbor, Michigan, when his parents were visiting professors at the University of Michigan.
69. That is also the case in Japan where the system that has produced relatively few Nobel Prizes is responsible for forcing its best and brightest overseas. See Low, op. cit. note 38.
70. Qiao bao • Zhongguo kexue zhoubao (China Press: The China Science Weekly), New York, 20 August 2000, C2.
71. According to the Chinese classic Yanzi chunqiu (The Annals of Yanzi), during a banquet entertaining Yanzi (?-550 BC) - who served as an envoy of Qi - the king of Chu deliberately had his soldiers escort a prisoner from Qi near by. The king asked, 'What crime did the prisoner commit?' 'Theft,' he was told. Then the king turned to Yanzi, 'Do citizens in Qi have a habit of stealing?' 'No', Yanzi said, 'An orange is called orange when it is planted in the south of the Huai River, and turns into a trifoliate orange when it migrates to the north of the river. That citizens from Qi committed the crime in Chu was due to the environment of Chu.' Yanzi used this story to show the importance of environment to a person's behaviour.
72. Robert K. Merton, 'Priorities in Scientific Discovery', in Robert K. Merton, The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations (1957); new edition by Norman W. Storer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 286-324.
73. One may well ask whether it is appropriate for laboratory chiefs to receive all the credit when Nobel Prize-winning experiments are carried out by junior colleagues.
74. Wenhui bao (Wenhui Daily), 28 October 2002.
75. For a discussion of the Fund and its impacts on the rising scientific elite in China, see Cong Cao and Richard P. Suttmeier, 'China's New Scientific Elite: Distinguished Young Scientists, theResearch Environment and Hopes for Chinese Science', The China Quarterly, 168, (December 2001), 959-983.
76. Suttmeier and Cao, 'China Faces the New Industrial Revolution', op. cit. note 22.
77. http://www.chinanews.com.cn/2001-08-20 (accessed 20 August 2001).
78. Issue Brief: Human Resource Contributions to US Science and Engineering from China (Arlington: Division of Science Resources Studies, National Science Foundation, 12 January 2001).
79. Qiao bao - Zhongguo kexue zhoubao (China Press - The China Science Weekly) (New York), 8 July 2001, C2.
80. http://xinhuanet.com (accessed 28 January 2003).
81. Interview with a young life scientist, Beijing, 5 December 1998.
82. For the key issues of nationalism and internationalism as they have concerned the Nobel Prize, see Elisabeth Crawford, Nationalism and Internationalism in Science, 1880-1939: Four Studies of the Nobel Population (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
83. See Yongnian Zheng, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China: Modernization, Identity, and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
84. Zhongguo kexue bao (China Science News), 7 October 1998; and Kexue shibao (Science Times), 5 June 2002.
85. Zhongguo kexue bao (China Science News), 7 October 1998; and Kexue shibao (Science Times), 5 June 2002.
86. Crawford, Heilbron, and Ullrich, op. cit. note 4, on 136-149. The author is indebted to Professor Gösta Ekspong at the University of Stockholm, former Chairman of the Nobel Committee for Physics, for providing this source, and for clarifying the issue. Personal communication, 24 September 2000. Professor Robert Marc Friedman of the University of Oslo, who has written extensively on the Nobel Prize phenomenon, does not recall mention of Zhao Zhongyao's case. But Friedman also suggests that unless Zhao was mentioned in Anderson's articles, or was nominated by Robert A. Millikan (the 1923 winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics, then President of the California Institute of Technology), there would be no way in which the Nobel Committee for Physics could have had any special insight into Zhao's work. Friedman's impression is that Millikan was very 'political' in his nominations - he pushed for his closest 'boys', and often ignored others' contributions. Personal communication, 2 July 2002. See also Friedman, op. cit. note 4, 176 and 330. Unfortunately, Millikan, normally a 'booster' of candidates in his home institution, did not support Zhao, one of his own students.
87. Crawford, Heilbron, and Ullrich, op. cit. note 4, on 136-149. The author is indebted to Professor Gösta Ekspong at the University of Stockholm, former Chairman of the Nobel Committee for Physics, for providing this source, and for clarifying the issue. Personal communication, 24 September 2000. Professor Robert Marc Friedman of the University of Oslo, who has written extensively on the Nobel Prize phenomenon, does not recall mention of Zhao Zhongyao's case. But Friedman also suggests that unless Zhao was mentioned in Anderson's articles, or was nominated by Robert A. Millikan (the 1923 winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics, then President of the California Institute of Technology), there would be no way in which the Nobel Committee for Physics could have had any special insight into Zhao's work. Friedman's impression is that Millikan was very 'political' in his nominations - he pushed for his closest 'boys', and often ignored others' contributions. Personal communication, 2 July 2002. See also Friedman, op. cit. note 4, 176 and 330. Unfortunately, Millikan, normally a 'booster' of candidates in his home institution, did not support Zhao, one of his own students.
88. 'Time for Chinese Scientists to Cast off Age-Old Shadow', China Daily, 29 December 1999.
89. See http://uscnews3.usc.edu/chronicle (accessed 6 August 2002).
90. The domination by basic research - chemistry, physics, medicine, materials science, and biology - in China's SCI-listed publications is an indication of such bias. See National Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Science and Technology (comp.), China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (Beijing: China Statistical Press, various years). For a discussion of the Japanese case, see Bartholomew, op. cit. note 38, on 276-280; and Low, op. cit. note 38.
91. The domination by basic research - chemistry, physics, medicine, materials science, and biology - in China's SCI-listed publications is an indication of such bias. See National Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Science and Technology (comp.), China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (Beijing: China Statistical Press, various years). For a discussion of the Japanese case, see Bartholomew, op. cit. note 38, on 276-280; and Low, op. cit. note 38.
92. The domination by basic research - chemistry, physics, medicine, materials science, and biology - in China's SCI-listed publications is an indication of such bias. See National Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Science and Technology (comp.), China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (Beijing: China Statistical Press, various years). For a discussion of the Japanese case, see Bartholomew, op. cit. note 38, on 276-280; and Low, op. cit. note 38.
93. 'China's Hopes and Hypes', Nature, 410 (1 March 2001), 1.
94. Shijie ribao (World Journal) (New York), 7 November 1999, A8.