'In the silence of the laboratory': The league of nations standardizes syphilis tests

Social History of Medicine

Volumn 16, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 437-459

  Mazumdar, Pauline M H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Independent science; Kahn test; League of Nations; Syphilis; Wassermann test

Indexed keywords

EID: 4043140124     PISSN: 0951631X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/shm/16.3.437     Document Type: Review

References (199)

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75. Venereal Disease Reports, 1, National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill (NIMR), Box 44, File: 1920-1; Box BS 43, File: Scottish Board of Health, 1927-31; W. Kerl, 'Schädigungen durch Salvarsan', in J. Jadassohn (ed.), Handbuch der Haut-und Geschlechtskranheiten, 23 vols (Berlin, 1927-31), vol. XVIII, Syphilis-Therapie (1928), 604-716; J. Jadassohn, 'Die heilende und schädigende Wirkung des Salvarsans', Klinische Wochenschrift, 1 (1922), 1193-9, 1243-7, 1716-17; J. Jadassohn, 'Zur Kasuistik der Arzneischädigungen (Salvarsan, Quecksilber, Wismut), besonders über extracutane fixe Nebenwirkungen", Medizinische Klinik, 21 (1925), 362-6.
76. Venereal Disease Reports, 1, National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill (NIMR), Box 44, File: 1920-1; Box BS 43, File: Scottish Board of Health, 1927-31; W. Kerl, 'Schädigungen durch Salvarsan', in J. Jadassohn (ed.), Handbuch der Haut-und Geschlechtskranheiten, 23 vols (Berlin, 1927-31), vol. XVIII, Syphilis-Therapie (1928), 604-716; J. Jadassohn, 'Die heilende und schädigende Wirkung des Salvarsans', Klinische Wochenschrift, 1 (1922), 1193-9, 1243-7, 1716-17; J. Jadassohn, 'Zur Kasuistik der Arzneischädigungen (Salvarsan, Quecksilber, Wismut), besonders über extracutane fixe Nebenwirkungen", Medizinische Klinik, 21 (1925), 362-6.
77. Venereal Disease Reports, 1, National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill (NIMR), Box 44, File: 1920-1; Box BS 43, File: Scottish Board of Health, 1927-31; W. Kerl, 'Schädigungen durch Salvarsan', in J. Jadassohn (ed.), Handbuch der Haut-und Geschlechtskranheiten, 23 vols (Berlin, 1927-31), vol. XVIII, Syphilis-Therapie (1928), 604-716; J. Jadassohn, 'Die heilende und schädigende Wirkung des Salvarsans', Klinische Wochenschrift, 1 (1922), 1193-9, 1243-7, 1716-17; J. Jadassohn, 'Zur Kasuistik der Arzneischädigungen (Salvarsan, Quecksilber, Wismut), besonders über extracutane fixe Nebenwirkungen", Medizinische Klinik, 21 (1925), 362-6.
78. Kerl, 'Schädigungen', notes Icterus Iuetictis (syphilitic jaundice), later ascribed to serum hepatitis, rose from 2% of cases (1890s), to 19% (1913), to 38% (1920); see R. R. Willcox, 'Effects of Syringe-transmitted Jaundice on the Outcome of the Treatment of Early Syphilis', British Journal of Venereal Diseases, 23 (1947), 121-3; A. King, 'Venereology; A Backward Look', British Journal of Venereal Diseases, 48 (1972), 412-15, pp. 412-3.
79. Kerl, 'Schädigungen', notes Icterus Iuetictis (syphilitic jaundice), later ascribed to serum hepatitis, rose from 2% of cases (1890s), to 19% (1913), to 38% (1920); see R. R. Willcox, 'Effects of Syringe-transmitted Jaundice on the Outcome of the Treatment of Early Syphilis', British Journal of Venereal Diseases, 23 (1947), 121-3; A. King, 'Venereology; A Backward Look', British Journal of Venereal Diseases, 48 (1972), 412-15, pp. 412-3.
80. Kerl, 'Schädigungen', notes Icterus Iuetictis (syphilitic jaundice), later ascribed to serum hepatitis, rose from 2% of cases (1890s), to 19% (1913), to 38% (1920); see R. R. Willcox, 'Effects of Syringe-transmitted Jaundice on the Outcome of the Treatment of Early Syphilis', British Journal of Venereal Diseases, 23 (1947), 121-3; A. King, 'Venereology; A Backward Look', British Journal of Venereal Diseases, 48 (1972), 412-15, pp. 412-3.
81. Dale to Col. D. Harvey, War Office, 27 June 1922; NIMR, Box BS 43, File: War Office; Privy Council, Medical Research Council, Reports of the Salvarsan Committee II. Toxic Effects Following the Employment of Arsenobenzol Preparations, Special Report, Series No. 66 (London, 1922); Sir H. Rolleston [Chair, Salvarsan Committee], Idiosyncrasies (London, 1927), pp. 82-3.
82. Dale to Col. D. Harvey, War Office, 27 June 1922; NIMR, Box BS 43, File: War Office; Privy Council, Medical Research Council, Reports of the Salvarsan Committee II. Toxic Effects Following the Employment of Arsenobenzol Preparations, Special Report, Series No. 66 (London, 1922); Sir H. Rolleston [Chair, Salvarsan Committee], Idiosyncrasies (London, 1927), pp. 82-3.
83. Dale to Col. D. Harvey, War Office, 27 June 1922; NIMR, Box BS 43, File: War Office; Privy Council, Medical Research Council, Reports of the Salvarsan Committee II. Toxic Effects Following the Employment of Arsenobenzol Preparations, Special Report, Series No. 66 (London, 1922); Sir H. Rolleston [Chair, Salvarsan Committee], Idiosyncrasies (London, 1927), pp. 82-3.
84. Dale to Col. D. Harvey, War Office, 27 June 1922; NIMR, Box BS 43, File: War Office; Privy Council, Medical Research Council, Reports of the Salvarsan Committee II. Toxic Effects Following the Employment of Arsenobenzol Preparations, Special Report, Series No. 66 (London, 1922); Sir H. Rolleston [Chair, Salvarsan Committee], Idiosyncrasies (London, 1927), pp. 82-3.
85. Ehrlich's test did not detect hepatitis or arsenobenzol anaphylaxis, tentatively recognized in 1930; Dale to Harrison, 11 March 1930, suggests it; Harrison to Dale, 2 May 1930, cites a possible case. NIMR, Box BS 43, File: Scottish Board of Health, 1927-31.
86. Committee of the Privy Council for Medical Research, Report of the Medical Research Council for the Year 1919-1920, PP. 1920 (Cmd 1088) XXI, pp. 35-7.
87. Dubin, 'Health Organization', p. 56; Vingt-cinq ans d'activité de l'Office international d'hygiène publique (1909-1933) (Paris, 1933).
88. Dubin, 'Health Organization', p. 56; Vingt-cinq ans d'activité de l'Office international d'hygiène publique (1909-1933) (Paris, 1933).
89. Office international d'hygìne publique, Arrangement international signé À Rome le 9 décembre 1907 pour la création, À Paris, d'un Office international d'hygiène publique (Paris, 1938).
90. Office international d'hygiène publique, Session extraordinaire du Comité permanent. Procès verbaux des séances (April 1914), (Paris, 1914), pp. 170, 206-10; A. Aisenberg, 'Syphilis and Prostitution: A Regulatory Couplet in Nineteenth-century France', in Davidson and Hall, Sex, Sin and Suffering, 15-28.
91. Office international d'hygiène publique, Session extraordinaire du Comité permanent. Procès verbaux des séances (April 1914), (Paris, 1914), pp. 170, 206-10; A. Aisenberg, 'Syphilis and Prostitution: A Regulatory Couplet in Nineteenth-century France', in Davidson and Hall, Sex, Sin and Suffering, 15-28.
92. M. Harrison, 'The British Army and the Problem of Venereal Disease in France and Egypt during the First World War', Medical History, 39 (1995), 133-58.
93. Typically: Salvarsan 606, 6-8 weeks, 0.25-0.4 G I/V, sometimes with mercurial cream (Lambkin's grey oil) I/M or mercurial inunctions. F. J. Lambkin, Treatment of Syphilis in the Public Services (Oxford, 1899), pp. 4-8; L. W. Harrison, Treatment of Syphilis: a Critical Review (Oxford, 1917), pp. 6-10.
94. Typically: Salvarsan 606, 6-8 weeks, 0.25-0.4 G I/V, sometimes with mercurial cream (Lambkin's grey oil) I/M or mercurial inunctions. F. J. Lambkin, Treatment of Syphilis in the Public Services (Oxford, 1899), pp. 4-8; L. W. Harrison, Treatment of Syphilis: a Critical Review (Oxford, 1917), pp. 6-10.
95. Office international d'hygiène publique, Comité international permanent, Session extraordinaire d'avril 1920, Première Séance, 26 avril 1920, pp. 201-3.
96. Foreign Office, Treaty Series No. 20. Agreement respecting Facilities to be given to Merchant Seamen for the Treatment of Venereal Disease, Signed at Brussels, December 1, 1924, PP. 1926 (Crnd 2727) XXX. The protocol includes the seaman's card.
97. Schelde-Møller, Madsen, pp. 41-52.
98. 5,967 in the first year, reaching 54,000 yearly by 1926; Wassermann Protokoller, juni 1912-dec 1912. Statens Seruminstitut, Copenhagen (SSI), MS ledger. SSI earned DKr 1000 monthly from WRs; Madsen was paid DKr 900: Madsen, Report, 1908-13. Communications de l'Institut Sérotherapiaue de l'État, 7 (1913).
99. 5,967 in the first year, reaching 54,000 yearly by 1926; Wassermann Protokoller, juni 1912-dec 1912. Statens Seruminstitut, Copenhagen (SSI), MS ledger. SSI earned DKr 1000 monthly from WRs; Madsen was paid DKr 900: Madsen, Report, 1908-13. Communications de l'Institut Sérotherapiaue de l'État, 7 (1913).
100. H. Boas and K. Norél, 'Serodiagnostik ved Sifilis', Meddelelser fra Statens Serum Institutet, 17 (1927), 243-56.
101. T. Madsen, MS 'Control of Syphilis in Denmark. Cutter Lecture on Preventive Medicine' (Harvard Medical School, 1937); SSI, Madsens Papirer III, 1937, File: Dr Madsens Fordrag i USA. Sample card: Madsen, Lectures on the Epidemiology and Control of Syphilis, Tuberculosis, Whooping Cough and other Diseases, Flexner Lectures, Series 5 (Baltimore, 1937), Figs. 3, 4, 13, 15; T. Madsen and P. Krag, 'The Syphilis Registration Office of the State Serum Institute', Acta Dermatologica et Venerea, 18 (1937), 546-51.
102. T. Madsen, MS 'Control of Syphilis in Denmark. Cutter Lecture on Preventive Medicine' (Harvard Medical School, 1937); SSI, Madsens Papirer III, 1937, File: Dr Madsens Fordrag i USA. Sample card: Madsen, Lectures on the Epidemiology and Control of Syphilis, Tuberculosis, Whooping Cough and other Diseases, Flexner Lectures, Series 5 (Baltimore, 1937), Figs. 3, 4, 13, 15; T. Madsen and P. Krag, 'The Syphilis Registration Office of the State Serum Institute', Acta Dermatologica et Venerea, 18 (1937), 546-51.
103. T. Madsen, MS 'Control of Syphilis in Denmark. Cutter Lecture on Preventive Medicine' (Harvard Medical School, 1937); SSI, Madsens Papirer III, 1937, File: Dr Madsens Fordrag i USA. Sample card: Madsen, Lectures on the Epidemiology and Control of Syphilis, Tuberculosis, Whooping Cough and other Diseases, Flexner Lectures, Series 5 (Baltimore, 1937), Figs. 3, 4, 13, 15; T. Madsen and P. Krag, 'The Syphilis Registration Office of the State Serum Institute', Acta Dermatologica et Venerea, 18 (1937), 546-51.
104. P. Weindling, 'Politics of International Co-ordination to Combat Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 1900-1980s', in V. Berridge and P. Strong (eds), AIDS and Contemporary History (Cambridge, 1993), 93-107.
105. A. Durand, Histoire du Comité International de la Croix-Rouge: de Solférino à Tsoushima (Geneva, 1978), pp. 118-59; J. F. Hutchinson, 'Custodians of the Sacred Fire: the ICRC and the post-War Reorganisation of the International Red Cross', in Weindling, Health Organisations, 17-35.
106. A. Durand, Histoire du Comité International de la Croix-Rouge: de Solférino à Tsoushima (Geneva, 1978), pp. 118-59; J. F. Hutchinson, 'Custodians of the Sacred Fire: the ICRC and the post-War Reorganisation of the International Red Cross', in Weindling, Health Organisations, 17-35.
107. International Labour Office, The International Labour Organisation, the First Decade (London, 1931), p. 19; V-Y. Ghebali, ILO: a Case Study on the Evolution of United Nations Specialised Agencies (Dordrecht, 1988); A. Alcock, History of the International Labour Organisation (London, 1971); A. Thomas, International Social Policy (Geneva, 1948).
108. International Labour Office, The International Labour Organisation, the First Decade (London, 1931), p. 19; V-Y. Ghebali, ILO: a Case Study on the Evolution of United Nations Specialised Agencies (Dordrecht, 1988); A. Alcock, History of the International Labour Organisation (London, 1971); A. Thomas, International Social Policy (Geneva, 1948).
109. International Labour Office, The International Labour Organisation, the First Decade (London, 1931), p. 19; V-Y. Ghebali, ILO: a Case Study on the Evolution of United Nations Specialised Agencies (Dordrecht, 1988); A. Alcock, History of the International Labour Organisation (London, 1971); A. Thomas, International Social Policy (Geneva, 1948).
110. International Labour Office, The International Labour Organisation, the First Decade (London, 1931), p. 19; V-Y. Ghebali, ILO: a Case Study on the Evolution of United Nations Specialised Agencies (Dordrecht, 1988); A. Alcock, History of the International Labour Organisation (London, 1971); A. Thomas, International Social Policy (Geneva, 1948).
111. Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases, Final Report, p. 64, para. 35.
112. The NCCVD's annual grant was c. £10,000: B. A. Towers, 'Health Education Policy 1916-1926: Venereal Disease and the Prophylaxis Dilemma', Medical History, 24 (1980), 70-87, pp. 77-81, n. 33.
113. P. Mazumdar, Eugenics, Human Genetics and Human Failings: The Eugenics Society, its Sources and its Critics (London, 1992), pp. 7-8, 28, 33-5. NCCVD lectured to medical officers and soldiers; W. G. MacPherson, W. P. Hetheringham, T. R. Elliott, and A. Balfour (eds), History of the Great War, Based on Official Documents: Diseases of the War, 2 vols, vol. II (London, 1923), p. 121.
114. P. Mazumdar, Eugenics, Human Genetics and Human Failings: The Eugenics Society, its Sources and its Critics (London, 1992), pp. 7-8, 28, 33-5. NCCVD lectured to medical officers and soldiers; W. G. MacPherson, W. P. Hetheringham, T. R. Elliott, and A. Balfour (eds), History of the Great War, Based on Official Documents: Diseases of the War, 2 vols, vol. II (London, 1923), p. 121.
115. Directeur de la Section d'Hygiène de la Ligue des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, 'Memorandum sur le Projet de la Croix-Rouge norvégienne en vue de l'Hygiène dans la Marine Marchande', Typescript, circulated to Conference, (Oslo, 28 June-5 July 1920), p. 6; H. Engelsen, 'Les dispensaires de la Croix-Rouge dans les ports', Vers la Santé: Revue mensuelle de la Ligue des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, 7 (1926), 3-7.
116. Directeur de la Section d'Hygiène de la Ligue des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, 'Memorandum sur le Projet de la Croix-Rouge norvégienne en vue de l'Hygiène dans la Marine Marchande', Typescript, circulated to Conference, (Oslo, 28 June-5 July 1920), p. 6; H. Engelsen, 'Les dispensaires de la Croix-Rouge dans les ports', Vers la Santé: Revue mensuelle de la Ligue des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, 7 (1926), 3-7.
117. Office international, Arrangement International (Rome 1907), pp. 14-15.
118. G. Tryde and A. Johansen, 'Sunhedsstyrelsen, Circulære tu Embedslægerne', Rescript d. Copenhagen, 2 January 1928, enclosing Seaman's Personal Card. SSI, Madsens Papirer, 1927, File: Skrivelsen.
119. League of Nations, Provisional Health Committee, Minutes of the Second Session (Paris, 20-22 October 1921), C.47.M.346.192.III; LoN, 'Memorandum as to Measures taken in Great Britain to Combat Venereal Disease', d. Geneva, 22 March 1923, circulated by the British Representative, pp. 3-8; LoN, 12 B. 27277/5923.
120. League of Nations, Provisional Health Committee, Minutes of the Second Session (Paris, 20-22 October 1921), C.47.M.346.192.III; LoN, 'Memorandum as to Measures taken in Great Britain to Combat Venereal Disease', d. Geneva, 22 March 1923, circulated by the British Representative, pp. 3-8; LoN, 12 B. 27277/5923.
121. League of Nations, Provisional Health Committee, Minutes of the Second Session (Paris, 20-22 October 1921), C.47.M.346.192.III; LoN, 'Memorandum as to Measures taken in Great Britain to Combat Venereal Disease', d. Geneva, 22 March 1923, circulated by the British Representative, pp. 3-8; LoN, 12 B. 27277/5923.
122. Mazumdar, Specificity, pp. 214-36.
123. Fleck, Genesis, p. 58; I. Löwy, 'Testing for a Sexually Transmissible Disease, 1907-1970: History of the Wassermann Reaction', in Berridge and Strong, AIDS, 74-92.
124. Fleck, Genesis, p. 58; I. Löwy, 'Testing for a Sexually Transmissible Disease, 1907-1970: History of the Wassermann Reaction', in Berridge and Strong, AIDS, 74-92.
125. S. Arrhenius and T. Madsen, 'Physical Chemistry Applied to Toxins and Antitoxins', in C. J. Salomonsen (ed.), Festskrift ved indvielsen af Statens Seruminstitutet 1902: Contributions from the University Laboratory for Medical Bacteriology to Celebrate the Inauguration of the State Serum Institute (Copenhagen, 1902), 1-111, p. 71.
126. F. W. Mott (Director of Laboratories, London County Asylum), 'Diagnosis of Venereal Disease by Laboratory Methods', Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases, Final Report, Appendix XX, 158-9, Figures 1 & 2: Citron-style Wassermann diagram. A. Cambrosio, D. Jacobi, and P. Keating, 'Ehrlich's Beautiful Pictures', Isis, 84 (1993), 662-99.
127. F. W. Mott (Director of Laboratories, London County Asylum), 'Diagnosis of Venereal Disease by Laboratory Methods', Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases, Final Report, Appendix XX, 158-9, Figures 1 & 2: Citron-style Wassermann diagram. A. Cambrosio, D. Jacobi, and P. Keating, 'Ehrlich's Beautiful Pictures', Isis, 84 (1993), 662-99.
128. Wassermann, Neisser, and Bruck, 'Serodiagnostische Reaktion', p. 745.
129. R. Volk, 'Antikörper zu diagnostischen Zwecken (Serodiagnostik): über Agglutination', in R. Kraus and C. Levaditi, Handbuch der Technik u. Methodik der Immunitätsforschung, vol. II (Antikörper) (Jena: 1st edn, 1908-13), 621-89, p. 664.
130. Fleischmann, 'Serumdiagnose', pp. 490-4.
131. B. S. Kline, 'Antigen for Use in Serum Tests for Syphilis', Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine, 13 (1928), 588-96; photographs comparing Wassermann with Kline's one-stage slide test, submitted to Third Laboratory Conference on Serodiagnosis (Copenhagen, 4-5 August 1930); LoN, R 5990 8E 22303/6554.
132. B. S. Kline, 'Antigen for Use in Serum Tests for Syphilis', Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine, 13 (1928), 588-96; photographs comparing Wassermann with Kline's one-stage slide test, submitted to Third Laboratory Conference on Serodiagnosis (Copenhagen, 4-5 August 1930); LoN, R 5990 8E 22303/6554.
133. B. S. Kline, 'Antigen for Use in Serum Tests for Syphilis', Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine, 13 (1928), 588-96; photographs comparing Wassermann with Kline's one-stage slide test, submitted to Third Laboratory Conference on Serodiagnosis (Copenhagen, 4-5 August 1930); LoN, R 5990 8E 22303/6554.
134. Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases, Final Report (1916), Appendix XXI, pp. 160-1; Ministry of Health, Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects, L. W. Harrison (ed. & intro.), Complement Fixation Test in Syphilis, Commonly Known as the Wassermann Test (London, 1920); O. Forges and G. Meier, to Berliner medizinischen Gesellschaft (11 December 1907), Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 44 (1907), 1655-6; O. Porges, 'Ueber Kolloide und Lipoide in ihre Beziehungen zur Immunitätslehre', in Kraus and Levaditi, Handbuch der Technik u. Methodik, vol. II (1909), 1136-84.
135. Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases, Final Report (1916), Appendix XXI, pp. 160-1; Ministry of Health, Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects, L. W. Harrison (ed. & intro.), Complement Fixation Test in Syphilis, Commonly Known as the Wassermann Test (London, 1920); O. Forges and G. Meier, to Berliner medizinischen Gesellschaft (11 December 1907), Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 44 (1907), 1655-6; O. Porges, 'Ueber Kolloide und Lipoide in ihre Beziehungen zur Immunitätslehre', in Kraus and Levaditi, Handbuch der Technik u. Methodik, vol. II (1909), 1136-84.
136. Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases, Final Report (1916), Appendix XXI, pp. 160-1; Ministry of Health, Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects, L. W. Harrison (ed. & intro.), Complement Fixation Test in Syphilis, Commonly Known as the Wassermann Test (London, 1920); O. Forges and G. Meier, to Berliner medizinischen Gesellschaft (11 December 1907), Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 44 (1907), 1655-6; O. Porges, 'Ueber Kolloide und Lipoide in ihre Beziehungen zur Immunitätslehre', in Kraus and Levaditi, Handbuch der Technik u. Methodik, vol. II (1909), 1136-84.
137. Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases, Final Report (1916), Appendix XXI, pp. 160-1; Ministry of Health, Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects, L. W. Harrison (ed. & intro.), Complement Fixation Test in Syphilis, Commonly Known as the Wassermann Test (London, 1920); O. Forges and G. Meier, to Berliner medizinischen Gesellschaft (11 December 1907), Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 44 (1907), 1655-6; O. Porges, 'Ueber Kolloide und Lipoide in ihre Beziehungen zur Immunitätslehre', in Kraus and Levaditi, Handbuch der Technik u. Methodik, vol. II (1909), 1136-84.
138. H. Sachs and W. Georgi, 'Zur Serodiagnostik der Syphilis mittels Ausflockung durch cholesterinierte Extrakte', Medizinische Klinik, 14 (1918), 805-9, p. 805.
139. E. Meinicke, 'Ueber eine neue Methode der serologischen Luesdiagnose', to Berliner medizinische Gesellschaft (23 May 1917), Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 54 (1917), 613-14; idem, 'Ueber Flockungs-u. Trübungsreaktion', Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 48 (1922), 219-21.
140. E. Meinicke, 'Ueber eine neue Methode der serologischen Luesdiagnose', to Berliner medizinische Gesellschaft (23 May 1917), Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 54 (1917), 613-14; idem, 'Ueber Flockungs-u. Trübungsreaktion', Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 48 (1922), 219-21.
141. G. Dreyer and H. Kingsley Ward, 'Simple Quantitative Reaction for the Diagnosis of Syphilis, and the Expression of Results in Standard Units', Lancet, 1 (1921), 956-61.
142. T. Madsen, Memorandum to Participants, Serological Conference (London 1921). LoN, R 827 12B 18325*/17692.
143. League of Nations, Health Committee, Second International Conference on the Standardisation of Sera and Serological Tests, held 20 November 1922 at the Institute Pasteur, Paris. C.H./S.S. 5.
144. W. Kolle to Madsen, 29 November 1921. SSI, Madsens Papirer, 1921-22, File: Folkeforbunds-korrespondance, 1921.
145. [Kolle] Report on Standardization Conference (Paris, 20-26 November 1922), 10;
146. SSI, Madsens Papirer, Standardisirungskonference, 1922.
147. Kolle to Madsen, 22 March 1923. SSI, Madsens Papirer, 1, 1923, Korrespondance: Folkeforbund, 1923.
148. Bangham, Standardization, p. 198.
149. Madsen to L. Rajchman, Medical Director, LoN Health Organization, 13 March 1923. LoN, R 880 12B 26213*/11346#4.
150. Madsen to Rajchman, 3July 1923, LoN, R880 12B 26213*11346.
151. M. B. Ogilvy, 'Marital Collaboration: An Approach to Science', in P. Abir-Am and D. Outram (eds), uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science, 1789-1979 (New Brunswick, 1987), 104-28. Women's role as laboratory technicians still awaits investigation.
152. Madsen, Circular to Participants, Copenhagen, 23 November 1923, SSI, Madsens Papirer I, 1923, Korrespondance: Folkeforbund.
153. H. Sachs to Madsen, 15 December 1923, SSI, Madsens Papirer I, 1923, Korrespondance: Folkeforbund 1923.
154. League of Nations, Health Organization, Permanent Commission for the Standardization of Sera, Serological Reactions and Biological Products, Investigations on the Serodiagnosis of Syphilis. Report of the Technical
155. League of Nations, Health Organization, Permanent Commission for the Standardization of Sera, Serological Reactions and Biological Products, Investigations on the Serodiagnosis of Syphilis. Report of the Technical Laboratory Conference (Copenhagen 1923), C.5. I. (1924), III; (C.H. 148), 71.
156. Madsen to L. Rajchman, 14 December 1923, LoN, R 880 12B 26213*/11343 #5.
157. R. Müller, 'Ballungsreaktion (Conglobation) mit luetischen Seris', Archiv für Dermatologie, 151 (1926), 570-8.
158. R. L. Kahn, Serology in Syphilis Control; Principles of Sensitivity and Specificity (Baltimore, 1942), 72-7.
159. H. Boas, 'Undersøgelser over Kahns Fældningsreaktion', Talk to Nordisk Dermatologist Forenings 6 Kongress, (Helsinki, August 1924), Hospitalstidende, 68 (1925), 97-107.
160. League of Nations, Health Organization, Permanent Commission for the Standardization of Sera, Serological Reactions and Biological Products, Investigations on the Serodiagnosis of Syphilis. Report of the Second Laboratory Conference (Copenhagen, 1928), C.H. 726, 10-15.
161. Kahn to Madsen, 16 july 1928, SSI, Madsens Papirer, 1928, I, Korrespondance.
162. I b i d.
163. Medical Research Council Reports. Series 14, No. 1. Comparison of the Kahn with the Bordet-Wassemann in Tests of Cerebrospinal Fluids, carried out by Dr Kahn and Dr Wyler after the Conference, July 10-25, 1929; L. W. Harrison, 'Comments on tests presented by Colonel L. W. Harrison, Dr Kahn and Dr Wyler'; LoN, Health Organization. Report on the Second Laboratory Conference on the Serodiagnosis of Syphilis (Copenhagen 21 May to 4 June, 1928), C.H. 726, Appendix, 157-86, pp. 180-4.
164. Medical Research Council Reports. Series 14, No. 1. Comparison of the Kahn with the Bordet-Wassemann in Tests of Cerebrospinal Fluids, carried out by Dr Kahn and Dr Wyler after the Conference, July 10-25, 1929; L. W. Harrison, 'Comments on tests presented by Colonel L. W. Harrison, Dr Kahn and Dr Wyler'; LoN, Health Organization. Report on the Second Laboratory Conference on the Serodiagnosis of Syphilis (Copenhagen 21 May to 4 June, 1928), C.H. 726, Appendix, 157-86, pp. 180-4.
165. Medical Research Council Reports. Series 14, No. 1. Comparison of the Kahn with the Bordet-Wassemann in Tests of Cerebrospinal Fluids, carried out by Dr Kahn and Dr Wyler after the Conference, July 10-25, 1929; L. W. Harrison, 'Comments on tests presented by Colonel L. W. Harrison, Dr Kahn and Dr Wyler'; LoN, Health Organization. Report on the Second Laboratory Conference on the Serodiagnosis of Syphilis (Copenhagen 21 May to 4 June, 1928), C.H. 726, Appendix, 157-86, pp. 180-4.
166. F. G. Boudreau to Madsen, 6 July 1928, SSI, Madsens Papirer, 1928, I, Korrespondance.
167. R. L. Kahn, 'League of Nations Conference on Laboratory Tests for Syphilis', Journal of the American Medical Association, 93 (1929), 351-3.
168. J. R. Matthews, 'Major Greenwood versus Almroth Wright: Contrasting Visions of "Scientific" Medicine in Edwardian Britain', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 69 (1995), 30-43, p. 36.
169. R. L. Kahn, 'Twenty-five Years of the Serology of Syphilis', Revista Argentina de Dermato-sifilogica, 16 (1932), 321-5; Kahn to O. E. W. Olsen, 20 March 1933; M. Greenwood to W. J. Wyler, 22 May 1933; L. W. Harrison to Olsen, 26 October 1933, SSI, Madsens Papirer, 1933, File: Folke-forbunds Korrespondance.
170. R. L. Kahn, 'Twenty-five Years of the Serology of Syphilis', Revista Argentina de Dermato-sifilogica, 16 (1932), 321-5; Kahn to O. E. W. Olsen, 20 March 1933; M. Greenwood to W. J. Wyler, 22 May 1933; L. W. Harrison to Olsen, 26 October 1933, SSI, Madsens Papirer, 1933, File: Folke-forbunds Korrespondance.
171. R. L. Kahn, 'Twenty-five Years of the Serology of Syphilis', Revista Argentina de Dermato-sifilogica, 16 (1932), 321-5; Kahn to O. E. W. Olsen, 20 March 1933; M. Greenwood to W. J. Wyler, 22 May 1933; L. W. Harrison to Olsen, 26 October 1933, SSI, Madsens Papirer, 1933, File: Folke-forbunds Korrespondance.
172. R. L. Kahn, 'Twenty-five Years of the Serology of Syphilis', Revista Argentina de Dermato-sifilogica, 16 (1932), 321-5; Kahn to O. E. W. Olsen, 20 March 1933; M. Greenwood to W. J. Wyler, 22 May 1933; L. W. Harrison to Olsen, 26 October 1933, SSI, Madsens Papirer, 1933, File: Folke-forbunds Korrespondance.
173. H. Boas, 'Untersuchungen über die neue Schnellreaktion nach Kahn', Dermatologische Wochen-schrift, 90 (1930), 771-4; Boas, 'Undersøgelser over Kahns Fældningsreaktion', p. 108.
174. H. Boas, 'Untersuchungen über die neue Schnellreaktion nach Kahn', Dermatologische Wochen-schrift, 90 (1930), 771-4; Boas, 'Undersøgelser over Kahns Fældningsreaktion', p. 108.
175. League of Nations, Health Committee, Session to be held in Geneva from 25-30 October 1928. Explanatory Note on Item IX of the Agenda: Report of Meeting of Experts on Syphilis and Cognate Subjects, C.H. 742 (i).
176. Jadassohn left Bern in 1917 for Breslau, then the site of the leading German dermatological chair. He was at his apogee as editor of Handbuch der Haut-und Geschlechtskrankheiten, 23 vols (Berlin: Springer, 1927-1931); retiring in 1931, he fled Germany in 1933, dying in Zurich in 1936; Neue Deutsche Biographie, vol. XX, pp. 259-60.
177. Jadassohn left Bern in 1917 for Breslau, then the site of the leading German dermatological chair. He was at his apogee as editor of Handbuch der Haut-und Geschlechtskrankheiten, 23 vols (Berlin: Springer, 1927-1931); retiring in 1931, he fled Germany in 1933, dying in Zurich in 1936; Neue Deutsche Biographie, vol. XX, pp. 259-60.
178. Jadassohn left Bern in 1917 for Breslau, then the site of the leading German dermatological chair. He was at his apogee as editor of Handbuch der Haut-und Geschlechtskrankheiten, 23 vols (Berlin: Springer, 1927-1931); retiring in 1931, he fled Germany in 1933, dying in Zurich in 1936; Neue Deutsche Biographie, vol. XX, pp. 259-60.
179. A. M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: a Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York, 1985), pp. 122-60.
180. F. W. Oelze, 'Salvarsanresistente Syphilis oder salvarsanträge Patienten?', Arbeiten aus dem Staats-institut für experimentelle Therapie und dem Georg-Speyer-Hause zu Frankfurt a.M., 21 (1928), 120-2.
181. Société des Nations, Organisation d'Hygiène. Troisième Conférence de Laboratoire sur le Sérodiagnostique de la Syphilis, (Copenhague, les 4 & 5 août 1930), C.H. 895.
182. League of Nations, Health Organization, Report on the Meeting of Experts on Syphilis and Cognate Subjects, (Geneva, 8-10 October 1928), 1928, III, 15. The League, fearing (in 1927) mass desertion of the Latin American countries, balanced its normal Eurocentrism with new funding for health projects in Latin America. Dubin, 'Health Organisation', p. 63.
183. League of Nations, Health Organization, Report of the Laboratory Conference on the Serodiagnosis of Syphilis, Convened at Montevideo by the Institute for the Prevention of Syphilis (Uruguay, 15-26 September 1930), C.H. 968 (1931, III, 4).
184. Jadassohn, 'Bedeutung . . . der Serum-Diagnostik', pp. 150-3; Jadassohn, 'Unsere Erfahrungen mit Salvarsan', Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 51 (1910), 2377-83.
185. Jadassohn, 'Bedeutung . . . der Serum-Diagnostik', pp. 150-3; Jadassohn, 'Unsere Erfahrungen mit Salvarsan', Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 51 (1910), 2377-83.
186. F. Blumenthal and A. v. Mallinckrodt-Haupt, 'Klinische Bedeutung der Serodiagnose der Syphilis', in Jadassohn (ed.), Handbuch der Haut-und Geschlechtskrankheiten, vol. XV, Part 2 (1929), 416-67, p. 457; R. Müller and R. Brandt, 'Wassermannreaktion (Theorie und Methodik)', 285-363; H. Sachs, 'Die Flockungsreaktionen zum serologischen Luesnachweis', 364-415.
187. F. Blumenthal and A. v. Mallinckrodt-Haupt, 'Klinische Bedeutung der Serodiagnose der Syphilis', in Jadassohn (ed.), Handbuch der Haut-und Geschlechtskrankheiten, vol. XV, Part 2 (1929), 416-67, p. 457; R. Müller and R. Brandt, 'Wassermannreaktion (Theorie und Methodik)', 285-363; H. Sachs, 'Die Flockungsreaktionen zum serologischen Luesnachweis', 364-415.
188. F. Blumenthal and A. v. Mallinckrodt-Haupt, 'Klinische Bedeutung der Serodiagnose der Syphilis', in Jadassohn (ed.), Handbuch der Haut-und Geschlechtskrankheiten, vol. XV, Part 2 (1929), 416-67, p. 457; R. Müller and R. Brandt, 'Wassermannreaktion (Theorie und Methodik)', 285-363; H. Sachs, 'Die Flockungsreaktionen zum serologischen Luesnachweis', 364-415.
189. Report, Montevideo Conference, pp. 17-18.
190. Great Britain, Ministry of Health, Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects, no. 67. E. J. Wyler, A Method of Increasing the Sensitivity of the Wassermann Test (London, 1932); Great Britain, Ministry of Health, Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects, No. 74. W. J. Wyler, On Serological Tests for Syphilis with Very Small Amounts of Patients' Serum (London, 1934).
191. Great Britain, Ministry of Health, Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects, no. 67. E. J. Wyler, A Method of Increasing the Sensitivity of the Wassermann Test (London, 1932); Great Britain, Ministry of Health, Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects, No. 74. W. J. Wyler, On Serological Tests for Syphilis with Very Small Amounts of Patients' Serum (London, 1934).
192. J. R. March, 'Om den Serodiagnostiske Prøve for Syfilis: (Følsomhed-Specificitet-Kvantitativ Udtitring)', Ugeskrififor Læger, 97 (1935), 392-4; T. Madsen, Statens Seruminstitut: Instituted Udvikling 1902-1940 (Copenhagen, 1940), pp. 74-6.
193. J. R. March, 'Om den Serodiagnostiske Prøve for Syfilis: (Følsomhed-Specificitet-Kvantitativ Udtitring)', Ugeskrififor Læger, 97 (1935), 392-4; T. Madsen, Statens Seruminstitut: Instituted Udvikling 1902-1940 (Copenhagen, 1940), pp. 74-6.
194. P. Krag, 'Sensitiveness and Specificity of a Bordet-Wassermann Reaction (March) and Kahn's Standard Reaction', Bulletin of the Health Organization, 7 (1938), 451-9.
195. R. L. Kahn to Madsen, 31 May 1939, LoN, R. 6208, 8 E. 28692/966.
196. R. Gauthier to Madsen, 17 April 1939, LoN, R. 6208, 8 E. 28692/966.
197. R. Gautier to S. Lester and J. V. Wilson, Secretariat, memorandum, 24 June 1939, LoN, R. 6208, 8 E. 28692/966.
198. R. Gautier to J. V. Wilson, Secretariat, memorandum, 8 September 1939, LoN, R. 6208, 8 E. 28692/966
199. Fleck, Genesis, p. 53.