Public sector research: A growing role in innovation systems

Minerva

Volumn 42, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 11-27

  Larédo, Philippe ^a   Mustar, Philippe ^b  

^a UNIVERSITÉ PARIS EST   (France)

^b CENTRE DE SOCIOLOGIE DE L INNOVATION   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 4043092849     PISSN: 00264695     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/B:MINE.0000017698.38154.a6     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (49)

1. Michael Gibbons, Camille Limoges, Helga Nowotny, Simon Schwartzman, Peter Scott, and Martin Trow, The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies (London: Sage, 1994).
2. See Richard Nelson (ed.), National Innovation Systems (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); Bengt-Åke Lundvall (ed.), National Innovation Systems: Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning (London: Pinter Publishers, 1992); and Charles Edquist (ed.), Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organizations (London: Pinter Publishers, 1997).
3. See Richard Nelson (ed.), National Innovation Systems (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); Bengt-Åke Lundvall (ed.), National Innovation Systems: Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning (London: Pinter Publishers, 1992); and Charles Edquist (ed.), Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organizations (London: Pinter Publishers, 1997).
4. See Richard Nelson (ed.), National Innovation Systems (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); Bengt-Åke Lundvall (ed.), National Innovation Systems: Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning (London: Pinter Publishers, 1992); and Charles Edquist (ed.), Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organizations (London: Pinter Publishers, 1997).
5. Deborah Cox, Philip Gummett, and Kate Barker (eds.), Government Laboratories: Transition and Transformation (Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2001).
6. Philippe Larédo and Philippe Mustar (eds.), Research and Innovation Policies in the New Global Economy: An International Comparative Analysis (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2001).
7. Jacqueline Senker, 'Introduction to a Special Issue on Changing Organisation and Structure of European Public-Sector Research Systems', Science and Public Policy, 27 (6), (2000), 394-396.
8. Cf. François Chesnais, 'The French National System of Innovation', in Nelson (ed.), op. cit. note 2.
9. In the US, this reduction did not touch research, and only returned expenditure to where it was at the beginning of the 1980s. See Barry Bozeman and James Dietz, 'Trends in the United States: Civilian Technology Programs, Defence Technology and the Deployment of National Laboratories', in Larédo and Mustar (eds.), op. cit. note 4. The increases in defence expenditure following the events of 2001 have not (yet) changed the overall trend.
10. For example, in the mid-1980s, military expenditures represented around 30% of total public R&D expenditure in France; and within civil expenditure, large programmes represented around half the total. Today, military expenditures are under 20% and large programmes (or the public institutions that remain, like CEA, the nuclear energy institution) represent around 25% of total civil expenditure (of which two-thirds relate to internal expenses, and the usual functions of public research institutions). Still, public civil expenditure has remained on a plateau in constant euros for the whole decade.
11. Cf. Scott Callon, Divided Sun (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995).
12. Michel Callon, Philippe Larédo, and Philippe Mustar (eds.), The Strategic Management of Research and Technology (Paris: Economic International, 1997).
13. These dealt with information technology, communication technology, and production technology (such as mechatronics).
14. For an appraisal of their role, see the national impact surveys on the effects of EU programmes in different countries, and especially in the UK, Germany, and France - for example, Luke Georghiou et al., The Impact of EC Policies for RTD upon Science and Technology in the UK (London: HMSO, 1993); Guido Reger et al., European Technology Policy in Germany (Karlsruhe: ISI, 1993); Philippe Larédo, 'Structural Effects of EC RT&D Programmes', Scientometrics, 34 (3), (1995), 473-487; and Philippe Larédo, 'The Networks Promoted by the Framework Programme and the Questions they Raise about its Formulation and Implementation', Research Policy, 27 (1998) 589-598.
15. For an appraisal of their role, see the national impact surveys on the effects of EU programmes in different countries, and especially in the UK, Germany, and France - for example, Luke Georghiou et al., The Impact of EC Policies for RTD upon Science and Technology in the UK (London: HMSO, 1993); Guido Reger et al., European Technology Policy in Germany (Karlsruhe: ISI, 1993); Philippe Larédo, 'Structural Effects of EC RT&D Programmes', Scientometrics, 34 (3), (1995), 473-487; and Philippe Larédo, 'The Networks Promoted by the Framework Programme and the Questions they Raise about its Formulation and Implementation', Research Policy, 27 (1998) 589-598.
16. For an appraisal of their role, see the national impact surveys on the effects of EU programmes in different countries, and especially in the UK, Germany, and France - for example, Luke Georghiou et al., The Impact of EC Policies for RTD upon Science and Technology in the UK (London: HMSO, 1993); Guido Reger et al., European Technology Policy in Germany (Karlsruhe: ISI, 1993); Philippe Larédo, 'Structural Effects of EC RT&D Programmes', Scientometrics, 34 (3), (1995), 473-487; and Philippe Larédo, 'The Networks Promoted by the Framework Programme and the Questions they Raise about its Formulation and Implementation', Research Policy, 27 (1998) 589-598.
17. For an appraisal of their role, see the national impact surveys on the effects of EU programmes in different countries, and especially in the UK, Germany, and France - for example, Luke Georghiou et al., The Impact of EC Policies for RTD upon Science and Technology in the UK (London: HMSO, 1993); Guido Reger et al., European Technology Policy in Germany (Karlsruhe: ISI, 1993); Philippe Larédo, 'Structural Effects of EC RT&D Programmes', Scientometrics, 34 (3), (1995), 473-487; and Philippe Larédo, 'The Networks Promoted by the Framework Programme and the Questions they Raise about its Formulation and Implementation', Research Policy, 27 (1998) 589-598.
18. For a review of changes between 1995 and 1999, see Philippe Larédo and Philippe Mustar, 'La recherche, le developpement' et l'innovation dans les grandes entreprises françaises: dynamiques et partenariats', Education et Formations, 59 (2001), 21-39.
19. For France, see Bernard Majoie, Recherche et innovation: la France dans la compétition mondiale (Paris: La Documentation Française, 2000).
20. Michael Crow and Barry Bozeman, Limited by Design: R&D Laboratories in the US National Innovation System (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998).
21. Philippe Mustar, 'How French Academics create High-Tech Companies: Conditions of Success and Failure of this Form of Relation between Science and Market', Science and Public Policy, 24 (1997), 37-43.
22. Philippe Mustar and Philippe Larédo, 'Innovation and Research Policy in France (1980-2000) or the Disappearance of the Colbertist State', Research Policy, 31 (1), (2002), 55-72.
23. The geographical partition of universities on the territory makes them 'proximity' public-research capabilities as opposed to government laboratories or national research institutions, which are far from being equally spread on the national territory.
24. Emilio Muñoz, 'The Spanish System of Research', in Larédo and Mustar (eds.), ' op. cit. note 4.
25. It should be noted that a similar movement is taking place in the US. The amount that the different American states spend on technology policy (excluding university support) is rapidly growing, and was in 1998, for the first time, larger than the budget of the NSF.
26. Luisa Henriques, 'National S&T Policy in the Globalisation Era: Portugal as a Research Laboratory' (Lisbon/Paris: CSI, mimeo, 2000).
27. The way research is introduced in the Acte Unique (1987) of the European Community is a typical example of this 'obsession'.
28. Gibbons et al., op. cit. note 1.
29. Bruno Latour has proposed the phrase 'collective experiments' to describe those processes in which the shaping of new products and services is not confined to industry designers, but involves the participation of numerous actors who collectively explore and progressively co-shape an innovation.
30. In France, AIDS gave rise to a non-profit organization, ANRS, supported by research institutions, which was put in charge of elaborating, piloting, and funding national research activities, including clinical trials. By contrast, research on nuclear waste has become governed by a law that defines three parallel options to be developed independently by three institutes, their progress being monitored by a parliamentary commission.
31. Yukio Sato, 'The Structure and Perspective of Science Technology Policy in Japan', in Larédo and Mustar (eds.), op. cit. note 4.
32. David Mowery, 'The US National Innovation System after the Cold War', in Larédo and Mustar (eds.), op. cit. note 4.
33. CNRS researchers and enseignants-chercheurs are civil servants, normally recruited at the post-doctoral level. The terminology enseignants-chercheurs emphasises the fact that they undertake both teaching and research on an equal footing.
34. By the 1982 statute that turned them into civil servants, full-time CNRS researchers are supposed to devote time to the dissemination and transfer of results (including teaching), and the management of research. A study by the Institut National pour la Recherche Agronomique (INRA) (Commission Scientifique, 'Bilan de la campagne', INRA internal document, 1996) has shown that 'other' activities represent, on average, half of their time, similar to what is expected from enseignants-chercheurs.
35. See Paula Stephan and Sharon Levin, 'The Critical Importance of Careers in Collaborative Research', Revue d'Economie Industrielle, 79 (1997), 45-61.
36. This does not take into account the grandes écoles, where the process has gone even further. In their areas of expertise (mainly, the engineering sciences), these produce more than 20% of the PhDs awarded in France, with only 6% of the total higher-education workforce.
37. Such as CEA for nuclear energy, ONERA for aeronautics, and INRIA for computer and information science and technology.
38. For an analysis of innovation trends at INRA, see INRA, Les chercheurs et l'innovation. Regards sur les pratiques de l'INRA (Paris: Institut National pour la Recherche Agronomique, 1998).
39. Pierre-Benoit Joly and Vincent Mangematin, 'Profile of Public Laboratories, Industrial Partnerships and Organisation of R&D: The Dynamics of Industrial Relationships in a Large Research Organisation', Research Policy, 25 (6), (1996), 901-922.
40. For a further development of this argument, see Philippe Larédo, 'Government Laboratories or Public Institutions of Professional Research? The Case of France', in Cox et al. (eds.), op. cit. note 3, 114-127.
41. Philippe Mustar, Les Chiffres Clés de la Science et de la Technologie (Paris: Economica/OST, 1998).
42. AURA (Angers), Deuxième Rapport de l'Observatoire de la Recherche Angevine, 1999.
43. For the methodology and the main results, see Philippe Larédo and Philippe Mustar, 'Laboratory Activity Profiles: An Exploratory Approach', Scientometrics, 47 (3), (2000), 515-539.
44. Jacqueline Senker et al., European Comparison of Public Research Systems, Final Report, TSER Programme (Falmer: Science Policy Research Unit, University of Sussex, 1999). For a summary, see Philippe Larédo, 'Benchmarking of R&D Policies in Europe: Research Collectives as an Entry Point for Renewed Comparative Analyses', Science and Public Policy, 28 (4), (2001), 285-294.
45. Jacqueline Senker et al., European Comparison of Public Research Systems, Final Report, TSER Programme (Falmer: Science Policy Research Unit, University of Sussex, 1999). For a summary, see Philippe Larédo, 'Benchmarking of R&D Policies in Europe: Research Collectives as an Entry Point for Renewed Comparative Analyses', Science and Public Policy, 28 (4), (2001), 285-294.
46. Activities should not be confused with resources gathered: the same study shows clear linkages between the country of origin and the ways through which laboratories access their resources.
47. Barend Van der Meulen and Arie Rip, 'Mediation in the Dutch Science System', Research Policy, 27 (8), (1998), 757-769.
48. Cf. Helga Nowotny, Peter Scott, and Michael Gibbons, Re-thinking Science: Knowledge and the Public in an Age of Uncertainty (Cambridge: Polity, 2001); and Henry Etzkowitz and Loet Leydesdorff, Universities in the Global Knowledge Economy: A Triple Helix of University - Industry - Government Relations (London: Pinter, 1997).
49. Cf. Helga Nowotny, Peter Scott, and Michael Gibbons, Re-thinking Science: Knowledge and the Public in an Age of Uncertainty (Cambridge: Polity, 2001); and Henry Etzkowitz and Loet Leydesdorff, Universities in the Global Knowledge Economy: A Triple Helix of University - Industry - Government Relations (London: Pinter, 1997).