Riding the tiger: Civilian control and the military in democratizing Korea

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 30, Issue 3, 2004, Pages

  Croissant, Aurel ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HEIDELBERG   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 4043082805     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X0403000303     Document Type: Review

References (56)

1. Quasi-civilian regimes are military regimes with a civilian window dressing (civil president, constitution, and semicompetitive elections), but which are military in substance in the sense that the military holds political hegemony. Typically, a former general serves as head of state and head of government. See Samuel E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (London: Pall Mall, 1962).
2. For a recent account of democratic consolidation in South Korea, see Larry Diamond and Shin Doh Chul (eds.), Institutional Reform and Democratic Consolidation in Korea (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2000); Kim Young Rae, Lee Hochul, and Mah In-Sub (eds.), Redefining Korean Politics. Lost Paradigm and New Vision (Seoul: Korean Political Science Association, 2002); Aurel Croissant, "Legislative Powers, Veto Players and the Emergence of Delegative Democracy: A Comparison of Presidentialism in the Philippines and South Korea," in Democratization 10, 3 (2003): 68-99; Im Hyug Baeg, "Faltering Democratic Consolidation in South Korea: Democracy at the End of Three Kims Era," in Democratization 11,4 (2004), forthcoming.
3. For a recent account of democratic consolidation in South Korea, see Larry Diamond and Shin Doh Chul (eds.), Institutional Reform and Democratic Consolidation in Korea (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2000); Kim Young Rae, Lee Hochul, and Mah In-Sub (eds.), Redefining Korean Politics. Lost Paradigm and New Vision (Seoul: Korean Political Science Association, 2002); Aurel Croissant, "Legislative Powers, Veto Players and the Emergence of Delegative Democracy: A Comparison of Presidentialism in the Philippines and South Korea," in Democratization 10, 3 (2003): 68-99; Im Hyug Baeg, "Faltering Democratic Consolidation in South Korea: Democracy at the End of Three Kims Era," in Democratization 11,4 (2004), forthcoming.
4. For a recent account of democratic consolidation in South Korea, see Larry Diamond and Shin Doh Chul (eds.), Institutional Reform and Democratic Consolidation in Korea (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2000); Kim Young Rae, Lee Hochul, and Mah In-Sub (eds.), Redefining Korean Politics. Lost Paradigm and New Vision (Seoul: Korean Political Science Association, 2002); Aurel Croissant, "Legislative Powers, Veto Players and the Emergence of Delegative Democracy: A Comparison of Presidentialism in the Philippines and South Korea," in Democratization 10, 3 (2003): 68-99; Im Hyug Baeg, "Faltering Democratic Consolidation in South Korea: Democracy at the End of Three Kims Era," in Democratization 11,4 (2004), forthcoming.
5. For a recent account of democratic consolidation in South Korea, see Larry Diamond and Shin Doh Chul (eds.), Institutional Reform and Democratic Consolidation in Korea (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2000); Kim Young Rae, Lee Hochul, and Mah In-Sub (eds.), Redefining Korean Politics. Lost Paradigm and New Vision (Seoul: Korean Political Science Association, 2002); Aurel Croissant, "Legislative Powers, Veto Players and the Emergence of Delegative Democracy: A Comparison of Presidentialism in the Philippines and South Korea," in Democratization 10, 3 (2003): 68-99; Im Hyug Baeg, "Faltering Democratic Consolidation in South Korea: Democracy at the End of Three Kims Era," in Democratization 11,4 (2004), forthcoming.
6. Kenneth W. Kemp and Charles Hudlin, "Civil Supremacy Over the Military: Its Nature and Limits," in Armed Forces & Society 19, 1 (1992): 8.
7. See, for example, Ümit Cizre Sakallioglu, "The Anomaly of the Turkish Military's Political Autonomy," in Comparative Politics 29, 2 (1997):151-168; David Pion-Berlin, "Military Autonomy and Emerging Democracies in South America," in Comparative Politics 25, 1 (1992): 83-102.
8. See, for example, Ümit Cizre Sakallioglu, "The Anomaly of the Turkish Military's Political Autonomy," in Comparative Politics 29, 2 (1997):151-168; David Pion-Berlin, "Military Autonomy and Emerging Democracies in South America," in Comparative Politics 25, 1 (1992): 83-102.
9. See Hermawan Sulyestro, "Electoral Politics in Indonesia," in Aurel Croissant, Gabi Bruns, and Mareike John (eds.), Electoral Politics in Southeast and East Asia (Singapore: Friedrich Ebert Foundation, 2002), pp. 75-101; Peter Thiery, Transformation in Chile: Institutioneller Wandel, Entwicklung und Demokratie, 1973-1996 (Frankfurt am Main: Vervuert, 2000).
10. See Hermawan Sulyestro, "Electoral Politics in Indonesia," in Aurel Croissant, Gabi Bruns, and Mareike John (eds.), Electoral Politics in Southeast and East Asia (Singapore: Friedrich Ebert Foundation, 2002), pp. 75-101; Peter Thiery, Transformation in Chile: Institutioneller Wandel, Entwicklung und Demokratie, 1973-1996 (Frankfurt am Main: Vervuert, 2000).
11. Finer, Man on Horseback.
12. For a clarification of the terms of discretionary powers and reserved domains, see Samuel J. Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and Samuel J. Valenzuela (eds.), Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992), 67-104.
13. See Charles F. Kennedy and David J. Louscher, "Civil-Military Interaction: Data in Search of a Theory," in Charles F. Kennedy and David J. Louscher (eds.), Civil-Military Interaction in Asia and Africa (Leiden: Brill, 1991), 1.
14. Ulf Sundhaussen, "The Durability of Military Regimes in Southeast Asia," in Zakaria Haji Ahmad and Harold Crouch (eds.), Military-Civilian Relations in Southeast Asia (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1985), 272.
15. Finer, Man on Horseback, 140-164.
16. Moon Chung-in and Kang Moon-Gu, "Democratic Opening and Military Intervention in South Korea: Comparative Assessment and Implications," in James Cotton (ed.), Politics and Policy in the New Korean State: From Roh Tae-woo to Kim Young-sam (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995), 184.
17. Cf. Finer, Man on Horseback, A.K. Smith and C. Welch Jr., Military Role and Rule: Perspectives and Civil-Military Relations (North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press, 1974); David Albright, "A Comparative Conceptualization of Civil-Military Relations," in World Politics 37, 4 (1980): 563-75; Martin Edmond, Armed Services and Society (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988), chapters 3 and 4; Valenzuela, Democratic Consolidation, 90-93; Felipe Agüero, "Democratic Consolidation and the Military in Southern Europe and South America," in Richard Gunther, Nikiforous Diamandorous, and Hans-Juergen Puhle (eds.), The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 148-63; Samuel J. Fitch, The Armed Forces and Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 159-173; David R. Mares, "Civil-Military Relations, Democracy and the Regional Neighborhood," in David R. Mares (ed.). Civil-Military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia and Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998), 1-25.
18. Cf. Finer, Man on Horseback, A.K. Smith and C. Welch Jr., Military Role and Rule: Perspectives and Civil-Military Relations (North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press, 1974); David Albright, "A Comparative Conceptualization of Civil-Military Relations," in World Politics 37, 4 (1980): 563-75; Martin Edmond, Armed Services and Society (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988), chapters 3 and 4; Valenzuela, Democratic Consolidation, 90-93; Felipe Agüero, "Democratic Consolidation and the Military in Southern Europe and South America," in Richard Gunther, Nikiforous Diamandorous, and Hans-Juergen Puhle (eds.), The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 148-63; Samuel J. Fitch, The Armed Forces and Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 159-173; David R. Mares, "Civil-Military Relations, Democracy and the Regional Neighborhood," in David R. Mares (ed.). Civil-Military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia and Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998), 1-25.
19. Cf. Finer, Man on Horseback, A.K. Smith and C. Welch Jr., Military Role and Rule: Perspectives and Civil-Military Relations (North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press, 1974); David Albright, "A Comparative Conceptualization of Civil-Military Relations," in World Politics 37, 4 (1980): 563-75; Martin Edmond, Armed Services and Society (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988), chapters 3 and 4; Valenzuela, Democratic Consolidation, 90-93; Felipe Agüero, "Democratic Consolidation and the Military in Southern Europe and South America," in Richard Gunther, Nikiforous Diamandorous, and Hans-Juergen Puhle (eds.), The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 148-63; Samuel J. Fitch, The Armed Forces and Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 159-173; David R. Mares, "Civil-Military Relations, Democracy and the Regional Neighborhood," in David R. Mares (ed.). Civil-Military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia and Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998), 1-25.
20. Cf. Finer, Man on Horseback, A.K. Smith and C. Welch Jr., Military Role and Rule: Perspectives and Civil-Military Relations (North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press, 1974); David Albright, "A Comparative Conceptualization of Civil-Military Relations," in World Politics 37, 4 (1980): 563-75; Martin Edmond, Armed Services and Society (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988), chapters 3 and 4; Valenzuela, Democratic Consolidation, 90-93; Felipe Agüero, "Democratic Consolidation and the Military in Southern Europe and South America," in Richard Gunther, Nikiforous Diamandorous, and Hans-Juergen Puhle (eds.), The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 148-63; Samuel J. Fitch, The Armed Forces and Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 159-173; David R. Mares, "Civil-Military Relations, Democracy and the Regional Neighborhood," in David R. Mares (ed.). Civil-Military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia and Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998), 1-25.
21. Cf. Finer, Man on Horseback, A.K. Smith and C. Welch Jr., Military Role and Rule: Perspectives and Civil-Military Relations (North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press, 1974); David Albright, "A Comparative Conceptualization of Civil-Military Relations," in World Politics 37, 4 (1980): 563-75; Martin Edmond, Armed Services and Society (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988), chapters 3 and 4; Valenzuela, Democratic Consolidation, 90-93; Felipe Agüero, "Democratic Consolidation and the Military in Southern Europe and South America," in Richard Gunther, Nikiforous Diamandorous, and Hans-Juergen Puhle (eds.), The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 148-63; Samuel J. Fitch, The Armed Forces and Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 159-173; David R. Mares, "Civil-Military Relations, Democracy and the Regional Neighborhood," in David R. Mares (ed.). Civil-Military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia and Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998), 1-25.
22. Cf. Finer, Man on Horseback, A.K. Smith and C. Welch Jr., Military Role and Rule: Perspectives and Civil-Military Relations (North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press, 1974); David Albright, "A Comparative Conceptualization of Civil-Military Relations," in World Politics 37, 4 (1980): 563-75; Martin Edmond, Armed Services and Society (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988), chapters 3 and 4; Valenzuela, Democratic Consolidation, 90-93; Felipe Agüero, "Democratic Consolidation and the Military in Southern Europe and South America," in Richard Gunther, Nikiforous Diamandorous, and Hans-Juergen Puhle (eds.), The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 148-63; Samuel J. Fitch, The Armed Forces and Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 159-173; David R. Mares, "Civil-Military Relations, Democracy and the Regional Neighborhood," in David R. Mares (ed.). Civil-Military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia and Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998), 1-25.
23. Cf. Finer, Man on Horseback, A.K. Smith and C. Welch Jr., Military Role and Rule: Perspectives and Civil-Military Relations (North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press, 1974); David Albright, "A Comparative Conceptualization of Civil-Military Relations," in World Politics 37, 4 (1980): 563-75; Martin Edmond, Armed Services and Society (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988), chapters 3 and 4; Valenzuela, Democratic Consolidation, 90-93; Felipe Agüero, "Democratic Consolidation and the Military in Southern Europe and South America," in Richard Gunther, Nikiforous Diamandorous, and Hans-Juergen Puhle (eds.), The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 148-63; Samuel J. Fitch, The Armed Forces and Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 159-173; David R. Mares, "Civil-Military Relations, Democracy and the Regional Neighborhood," in David R. Mares (ed.). Civil-Military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia and Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998), 1-25.
24. Cf. Finer, Man on Horseback, A.K. Smith and C. Welch Jr., Military Role and Rule: Perspectives and Civil-Military Relations (North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press, 1974); David Albright, "A Comparative Conceptualization of Civil-Military Relations," in World Politics 37, 4 (1980): 563-75; Martin Edmond, Armed Services and Society (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988), chapters 3 and 4; Valenzuela, Democratic Consolidation, 90-93; Felipe Agüero, "Democratic Consolidation and the Military in Southern Europe and South America," in Richard Gunther, Nikiforous Diamandorous, and Hans-Juergen Puhle (eds.), The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 148-63; Samuel J. Fitch, The Armed Forces and Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 159-173; David R. Mares, "Civil-Military Relations, Democracy and the Regional Neighborhood," in David R. Mares (ed.). Civil-Military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia and Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998), 1-25.
25. Fitch, The Armed Forces.
26. See Alfred Stepan, "The New Professionalism of Internal Warfare and Military Role Expansion," in Abraham Lowenthal (ed.), Armies and Politics in Latin America (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1976), 244-260.
27. For a general discussion of overarching loyalties and identity conflicts, see Arend Lijphart, Political Order in Plural Societies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977).
28. For a general discussion of metagames and subgames in democratic transition, see Garry Marks, "Rational Sources of Chaos in Democratic Transition," in Carry Marks and Larry Diamond (eds.), Reexamining Democracy (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 47-69. For the theoretical concept of nested games, see George Tsebelis, Nested Games (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990).
29. For a general discussion of metagames and subgames in democratic transition, see Garry Marks, "Rational Sources of Chaos in Democratic Transition," in Carry Marks and Larry Diamond (eds.), Reexamining Democracy (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 47-69. For the theoretical concept of nested games, see George Tsebelis, Nested Games (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990).
30. See the seminal work of Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968). Needless to say, in many cases the military was involved in political power games that were played before a coup was staged.
31. Huntington, Political Order.
32. See Mark Clifford, Troubled Tiger: Businessmen, Bureaucrats and Generals in South Korea (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994), 138 ff.; Moon and Kang, "Democratic Opening," 173 ff.
33. See Mark Clifford, Troubled Tiger: Businessmen, Bureaucrats and Generals in South Korea (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994), 138 ff.; Moon and Kang, "Democratic Opening," 173 ff.
34. Edward E. Azar and Moon Chung-in, "Legitimacy, Integration and Policy Capacity: The 'Software' Side of Third World Security," in Edward E. Azar and Moon Chung-in (eds.), National Security in the Third World: The Management of Internal and External Threats (Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1988), 77-101.
35. Yang Sung Chul, The North and South Korean Political System: A Comparative Analysis (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 556-7.
36. Robert E. Bedeski, The Transformation of South Korea (London: Routledge, 1994); Don Oberdorfer, The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History (Indianapolis, IN: Basic Books, 2002).
37. Robert E. Bedeski, The Transformation of South Korea (London: Routledge, 1994); Don Oberdorfer, The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History (Indianapolis, IN: Basic Books, 2002).
38. Lee Man Woo, The Odyssey of Korean Democracy (New York: Praeger, 1990).
39. James Cotton, "Understanding the State in South Korea: Bureaucratic-Authoritarian or State Autonomy Theory?" in Comparative Political Studies 24, 4 (1992): 525.
40. For details, see Aurel Croissant, Politischer Systemwechsel in Südkorea (1985-1997) (Hamburg: IfA, 1998).
41. Joohee Lee, "Class Structure and Class Consciousness in South Korea," in Journal of Contemporary Asia 27, 2 (1997): 135-155.
42. Moon Chung-in, "Democratization, National Security Policies and Civil-Military Relations: Some Theoretical Issues and the South Korean Case," in Pacific Focus 4, 2 (1989): 13; Han Sung-joo and Park Yung Chul, "South Korea: Democratization at Least," in James W. Morley (ed.), Driven by Growth: Political Change in the Asia-Pacific Region (New York: Praeger, 1993), 185.
43. Moon Chung-in, "Democratization, National Security Policies and Civil-Military Relations: Some Theoretical Issues and the South Korean Case," in Pacific Focus 4, 2 (1989): 13; Han Sung-joo and Park Yung Chul, "South Korea: Democratization at Least," in James W. Morley (ed.), Driven by Growth: Political Change in the Asia-Pacific Region (New York: Praeger, 1993), 185.
44. See Mark Clifford, Troubled Tiger, 286-87; Bruce Cummings, Korea's Place in the Sun (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1997), p. 390.
45. See Mark Clifford, Troubled Tiger, 286-87; Bruce Cummings, Korea's Place in the Sun (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1997), p. 390.
46. Moon and Kang, Democratic Opening, 185-86.
47. Paik Young Chul, "Political Reform and Democratic Consolidation in Korea," in Korea & World Affairs 18, 4 (1994): 730-48; Moon and Kang, Democratic Opening, 187-88; Oh John Kie-Chiang, Korean Politics: The Quest for Democratization and Economic Development (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 134; Jun Jinsok, "South Korea: Consolidating Democratic Civilian Control," in Muthiah Alagappa (ed.), Coercion and Governance: The Declining Political Role of the Military in Asia (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), 121-143.
48. Paik Young Chul, "Political Reform and Democratic Consolidation in Korea," in Korea & World Affairs 18, 4 (1994): 730-48; Moon and Kang, Democratic Opening, 187-88; Oh John Kie-Chiang, Korean Politics: The Quest for Democratization and Economic Development (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 134; Jun Jinsok, "South Korea: Consolidating Democratic Civilian Control," in Muthiah Alagappa (ed.), Coercion and Governance: The Declining Political Role of the Military in Asia (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), 121-143.
49. Paik Young Chul, "Political Reform and Democratic Consolidation in Korea," in Korea & World Affairs 18, 4 (1994): 730-48; Moon and Kang, Democratic Opening, 187-88; Oh John Kie-Chiang, Korean Politics: The Quest for Democratization and Economic Development (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 134; Jun Jinsok, "South Korea: Consolidating Democratic Civilian Control," in Muthiah Alagappa (ed.), Coercion and Governance: The Declining Political Role of the Military in Asia (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), 121-143.
50. Paik Young Chul, "Political Reform and Democratic Consolidation in Korea," in Korea & World Affairs 18, 4 (1994): 730-48; Moon and Kang, Democratic Opening, 187-88; Oh John Kie-Chiang, Korean Politics: The Quest for Democratization and Economic Development (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 134; Jun Jinsok, "South Korea: Consolidating Democratic Civilian Control," in Muthiah Alagappa (ed.), Coercion and Governance: The Declining Political Role of the Military in Asia (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), 121-143.
51. Shin Doh Chull, Mass Politics and Culture in Democratizing Korea (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 202.
52. Ibid., pp. 200 ff.
53. Ibid., pp. 206-207.
54. Shin Doh Chull and Richard Rose, 1999 New Korea Barometer Survey. Center for the Study of Public Policy, Studies in Public Policy No. 327. (Glasgow: University of Strathclyde, 1999).
55. Neil Munro, Korean Public Opinion in Comparative Perspective. Center for the Study of Public Policy, Studies in Public Policy No. 305. (Glasgow: University of Strathclyde, 1998).
56. See the seminal work of Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957).