Internationalism, environmental necessity, and national interest: Marine science and other sciences

Minerva

Volumn 42, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 127-149

  Rozwadowski, Helen M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 4043065657     PISSN: 00264695     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/B:MINE.0000030023.04586.45     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. Danish State Archives (Rigsarkivet) (Copenhagen), ICES (Archive No. 10.649) (hereafter, ICES), Box 138, folder: 9N FAO, 1940-1957, F.L. McDougall, FAO, to Dr. Harald Blegvad, General Secretary, 8 August 1947.
2. Nations invited to join the Council included Belgium, Britain, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Norway, Russia, and Sweden. Belgium was not a founding member, but joined in 1903. Note that Norway at the time was in Union with Sweden, and Finland was a Grand Duchy of Russia. For a full account, see Helen M. Rozwadowski, The Sea Knows No Boundaries: A Century of Marine Science under ICES (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press and International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, 2002), 9-41.
3. Pettersson had a ringside seat to the developing science of meteorology, which found enthusiastic students in Norway, where the possibility of predicting harvests and fish catches promised an unprecedented degree of control over nature. Vilhelm Bjerknes, founder of modern meteorology, first learned of the application of his circulation theorem to atmospheric and oceanic phenomena through Scandinavian colleagues, including Pettersson, at the Stockholm Högskola. See Robert Marc Friedman, Appropriating the Weather: Vilhelm Bjerknes and the Construction of a Modern Meteorology (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989), 1-58. For a detailed account of Pettersson's contributions to oceanography, see Artur Svansson, 'Otto Pettersson, the Oceanographer' [manuscript]. A fuller account of his role in the founding of ICES can be found in Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 15, 18-21, 31-32.
4. Pettersson had a ringside seat to the developing science of meteorology, which found enthusiastic students in Norway, where the possibility of predicting harvests and fish catches promised an unprecedented degree of control over nature. Vilhelm Bjerknes, founder of modern meteorology, first learned of the application of his circulation theorem to atmospheric and oceanic phenomena through Scandinavian colleagues, including Pettersson, at the Stockholm Högskola. See Robert Marc Friedman, Appropriating the Weather: Vilhelm Bjerknes and the Construction of a Modern Meteorology (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989), 1-58. For a detailed account of Pettersson's contributions to oceanography, see Artur Svansson, 'Otto Pettersson, the Oceanographer' [manuscript]. A fuller account of his role in the founding of ICES can be found in Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 15, 18-21, 31-32.
5. Pettersson had a ringside seat to the developing science of meteorology, which found enthusiastic students in Norway, where the possibility of predicting harvests and fish catches promised an unprecedented degree of control over nature. Vilhelm Bjerknes, founder of modern meteorology, first learned of the application of his circulation theorem to atmospheric and oceanic phenomena through Scandinavian colleagues, including Pettersson, at the Stockholm Högskola. See Robert Marc Friedman, Appropriating the Weather: Vilhelm Bjerknes and the Construction of a Modern Meteorology (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989), 1-58. For a detailed account of Pettersson's contributions to oceanography, see Artur Svansson, 'Otto Pettersson, the Oceanographer' [manuscript]. A fuller account of his role in the founding of ICES can be found in Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 15, 18-21, 31-32.
6. Oron J. Hale, The Great Illusion, 1900-1914 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), xiii-xiv, 11-21; F.S.L. Lyons, Internationalism in Europe (Leyden: A.W. Sythoff, 1963), 11-38, 121-131; Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and a World without War: The Peace Movement and German Society, 1892-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 3-37; Michael Wallace and J. David Singer, 'Intergovernmental Organization in the Global System, 1815-1964: A Quantitative Description', International Organization, 24 (2), (1970), 239-287; and A.J.R. Groom, 'The Advent of International Institutions', in Paul Taylor and J.J.R. Groom (eds.), International Organization: A Conceptual Approach (New York: Nichols Publishing, 1978), 11-27.
7. Oron J. Hale, The Great Illusion, 1900-1914 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), xiii-xiv, 11-21; F.S.L. Lyons, Internationalism in Europe (Leyden: A.W. Sythoff, 1963), 11-38, 121-131; Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and a World without War: The Peace Movement and German Society, 1892-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 3-37; Michael Wallace and J. David Singer, 'Intergovernmental Organization in the Global System, 1815-1964: A Quantitative Description', International Organization, 24 (2), (1970), 239-287; and A.J.R. Groom, 'The Advent of International Institutions', in Paul Taylor and J.J.R. Groom (eds.), International Organization: A Conceptual Approach (New York: Nichols Publishing, 1978), 11-27.
8. Oron J. Hale, The Great Illusion, 1900-1914 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), xiii-xiv, 11-21; F.S.L. Lyons, Internationalism in Europe (Leyden: A.W. Sythoff, 1963), 11-38, 121-131; Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and a World without War: The Peace Movement and German Society, 1892-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 3-37; Michael Wallace and J. David Singer, 'Intergovernmental Organization in the Global System, 1815-1964: A Quantitative Description', International Organization, 24 (2), (1970), 239-287; and A.J.R. Groom, 'The Advent of International Institutions', in Paul Taylor and J.J.R. Groom (eds.), International Organization: A Conceptual Approach (New York: Nichols Publishing, 1978), 11-27.
9. Oron J. Hale, The Great Illusion, 1900-1914 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), xiii-xiv, 11-21; F.S.L. Lyons, Internationalism in Europe (Leyden: A.W. Sythoff, 1963), 11-38, 121-131; Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and a World without War: The Peace Movement and German Society, 1892-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 3-37; Michael Wallace and J. David Singer, 'Intergovernmental Organization in the Global System, 1815-1964: A Quantitative Description', International Organization, 24 (2), (1970), 239-287; and A.J.R. Groom, 'The Advent of International Institutions', in Paul Taylor and J.J.R. Groom (eds.), International Organization: A Conceptual Approach (New York: Nichols Publishing, 1978), 11-27.
10. Oron J. Hale, The Great Illusion, 1900-1914 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), xiii-xiv, 11-21; F.S.L. Lyons, Internationalism in Europe (Leyden: A.W. Sythoff, 1963), 11-38, 121-131; Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and a World without War: The Peace Movement and German Society, 1892-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 3-37; Michael Wallace and J. David Singer, 'Intergovernmental Organization in the Global System, 1815-1964: A Quantitative Description', International Organization, 24 (2), (1970), 239-287; and A.J.R. Groom, 'The Advent of International Institutions', in Paul Taylor and J.J.R. Groom (eds.), International Organization: A Conceptual Approach (New York: Nichols Publishing, 1978), 11-27.
11. Lyons, op. cit. note 4, 202-232. The International Association of Academies, founded in 1899, faded during the First World War, to be replaced by a new body, the International Research Council, in 1919. When IRC's convention ended in 1931, the present International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) was created. See Frank Greenaway, Science International: A History of the International Council of Scientific Unions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 1-44; Elisabeth Crawford, Nationalism and Internationalism in Science, 1880-1939: Four Studies of the Nobel Population (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
12. Lyons, op. cit. note 4, 202-232. The International Association of Academies, founded in 1899, faded during the First World War, to be replaced by a new body, the International Research Council, in 1919. When IRC's convention ended in 1931, the present International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) was created. See Frank Greenaway, Science International: A History of the International Council of Scientific Unions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 1-44; Elisabeth Crawford, Nationalism and Internationalism in Science, 1880-1939: Four Studies of the Nobel Population (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
13. Lyons, op. cit. note 4, 202-232. The International Association of Academies, founded in 1899, faded during the First World War, to be replaced by a new body, the International Research Council, in 1919. When IRC's convention ended in 1931, the present International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) was created. See Frank Greenaway, Science International: A History of the International Council of Scientific Unions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 1-44; Elisabeth Crawford, Nationalism and Internationalism in Science, 1880-1939: Four Studies of the Nobel Population (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
14. Germany, The Netherlands, and Britain insisted that the proposed Council concern itself with practical questions, notably, the possibility of over-fishing.
15. Documents from the preparatory conferences in Stockholm (1899) and Kristiania (now Oslo, 1901) were reprinted for ICES's twenty-fifth jubilee in Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 47 (1928), 5-23, quotation on 11. An English translation appears in A.E.J. Went, Seventy Years Agrowing: A History of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, 1902-1972, Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 165 (1972), 10.
16. Documents from the preparatory conferences in Stockholm (1899) and Kristiania (now Oslo, 1901) were reprinted for ICES's twenty-fifth jubilee in Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 47 (1928), 5-23, quotation on 11. An English translation appears in A.E.J. Went, Seventy Years Agrowing: A History of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, 1902-1972, Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 165 (1972), 10.
17. ICES Secretariat, folder: Marine Science History, C.F. Drechsel, 'Lecture Held by C.F. Drechsel during the Congress of the Danish Fish Dealers and Ocean Fishery Union, July 1912', 32.
18. Philip J. Pauly, 'Summer Resort and Scientific Discipline: Woods Hole and the Structure of American Biology, 1882-1925' and Keith R. Benson, 'From Museum Research to Laboratory Research: The Transformation of Natural History into Academic Biology', in Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson, and Jane Maienschein (eds.), The American Development of Biology (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), 121-150 and (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 49-86; Keith R. Benson, 'Review Paper: The Naples Stazione Zoologica and its Impact on the Emergence of American Marine Biology', Journal of the History of Biology, 21 (2), (1988), 331-341; Jane Maienschein, 100 Years of Exploring Life, 1888-1988: The Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole (Boston: Jones and Barlett, 1989); and Margaret Deacon, 'Crisis and Compromise: The Foundation of Marine Stations in Britain during the Late 19th Century', Earth Sciences History, 12 (1), (1993), 19-47.
19. Philip J. Pauly, 'Summer Resort and Scientific Discipline: Woods Hole and the Structure of American Biology, 1882-1925' and Keith R. Benson, 'From Museum Research to Laboratory Research: The Transformation of Natural History into Academic Biology', in Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson, and Jane Maienschein (eds.), The American Development of Biology (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), 121-150 and (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 49-86; Keith R. Benson, 'Review Paper: The Naples Stazione Zoologica and its Impact on the Emergence of American Marine Biology', Journal of the History of Biology, 21 (2), (1988), 331-341; Jane Maienschein, 100 Years of Exploring Life, 1888-1988: The Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole (Boston: Jones and Barlett, 1989); and Margaret Deacon, 'Crisis and Compromise: The Foundation of Marine Stations in Britain during the Late 19th Century', Earth Sciences History, 12 (1), (1993), 19-47.
20. Philip J. Pauly, 'Summer Resort and Scientific Discipline: Woods Hole and the Structure of American Biology, 1882-1925' and Keith R. Benson, 'From Museum Research to Laboratory Research: The Transformation of Natural History into Academic Biology', in Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson, and Jane Maienschein (eds.), The American Development of Biology (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), 121-150 and (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 49-86; Keith R. Benson, 'Review Paper: The Naples Stazione Zoologica and its Impact on the Emergence of American Marine Biology', Journal of the History of Biology, 21 (2), (1988), 331-341; Jane Maienschein, 100 Years of Exploring Life, 1888-1988: The Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole (Boston: Jones and Barlett, 1989); and Margaret Deacon, 'Crisis and Compromise: The Foundation of Marine Stations in Britain during the Late 19th Century', Earth Sciences History, 12 (1), (1993), 19-47.
21. Philip J. Pauly, 'Summer Resort and Scientific Discipline: Woods Hole and the Structure of American Biology, 1882-1925' and Keith R. Benson, 'From Museum Research to Laboratory Research: The Transformation of Natural History into Academic Biology', in Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson, and Jane Maienschein (eds.), The American Development of Biology (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), 121-150 and (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 49-86; Keith R. Benson, 'Review Paper: The Naples Stazione Zoologica and its Impact on the Emergence of American Marine Biology', Journal of the History of Biology, 21 (2), (1988), 331-341; Jane Maienschein, 100 Years of Exploring Life, 1888-1988: The Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole (Boston: Jones and Barlett, 1989); and Margaret Deacon, 'Crisis and Compromise: The Foundation of Marine Stations in Britain during the Late 19th Century', Earth Sciences History, 12 (1), (1993), 19-47.
22. Philip J. Pauly, 'Summer Resort and Scientific Discipline: Woods Hole and the Structure of American Biology, 1882-1925' and Keith R. Benson, 'From Museum Research to Laboratory Research: The Transformation of Natural History into Academic Biology', in Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson, and Jane Maienschein (eds.), The American Development of Biology (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), 121-150 and (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 49-86; Keith R. Benson, 'Review Paper: The Naples Stazione Zoologica and its Impact on the Emergence of American Marine Biology', Journal of the History of Biology, 21 (2), (1988), 331-341; Jane Maienschein, 100 Years of Exploring Life, 1888-1988: The Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole (Boston: Jones and Barlett, 1989); and Margaret Deacon, 'Crisis and Compromise: The Foundation of Marine Stations in Britain during the Late 19th Century', Earth Sciences History, 12 (1), (1993), 19-47.
23. Philip J. Pauly, 'Summer Resort and Scientific Discipline: Woods Hole and the Structure of American Biology, 1882-1925' and Keith R. Benson, 'From Museum Research to Laboratory Research: The Transformation of Natural History into Academic Biology', in Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson, and Jane Maienschein (eds.), The American Development of Biology (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), 121-150 and (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 49-86; Keith R. Benson, 'Review Paper: The Naples Stazione Zoologica and its Impact on the Emergence of American Marine Biology', Journal of the History of Biology, 21 (2), (1988), 331-341; Jane Maienschein, 100 Years of Exploring Life, 1888-1988: The Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole (Boston: Jones and Barlett, 1989); and Margaret Deacon, 'Crisis and Compromise: The Foundation of Marine Stations in Britain during the Late 19th Century', Earth Sciences History, 12 (1), (1993), 19-47.
24. H. C. Redeke, 'Dr. Paulus Peronius Cato Hoek', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 47 (1928), 23-24; Simon Schaap and Frits R. Loomeijer, 'Introduction', in Loomeijer, compiler, Dutch Fishing Industry, 1900-1935: RIVO Collection (Alkmaar: Uitgeverij de Alk B.V., 1995), 2-15; Ab Dral, De geschiedenis van het Zoölogisch Station der Nederlandse Dierkundige Vereniging (Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee, NIOZ-Rapport 1988-7); Johan van Bennekom, 'On the History of the Netherlands Institute for Sea Research', History of Oceanography, 12 (2000), 14-15; ICES Secretariat, Basement File (hereafter, 'ICES Secretariat'), folder: history of the Council, Adolf Bückmann, 'A Piece of Small-talk about the ICES, 1923-1939' [manuscript], p. 7; ICES Secretariat, folder: Marine Science History, A. Bückmann, 'Draft Notes', enclosed in a letter to A. E. J. Went, 27 June 1969; Jens Smed, 'Walther Herwig: The First President of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)', in Walter Lenz and Margaret Deacon (eds.), Ocean Sciences: Their History and Relation to Man, Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on the History of Oceanography, Hamburg, 23-29 September 1987. Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift, Ergänzungsheft Reihe B., Nr. 22 (1990), 323-326. For biographical treatments of Herwig, see Friedrich Heincke and Hermann Henking, 'Dr. Walther Herwig, Präsident des Deutschen Seefischerei-Vereins, Ein Gedenkblatt', Mittheilungen des Deutschen Seefischeri-Vereins, 29 (4), (1913), 92-136; and Paul-Friedrich Meyer-Waarden, Walther Herwig, 1838-1912. Portrait eines bedeutenden Staatsdieners und Pioniers, Schriften der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei Hamburg, 13 (1977). See also Walter Lenz, 'Die Überfischung der Nordsee: Ein historischer Überblick des Konfliktes zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft', Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahrbuch, 1 (1992), 87-108. For a detailed account of Hoek's and Herwig's roles in the development of international marine science, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 21-26.
25. H. C. Redeke, 'Dr. Paulus Peronius Cato Hoek', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 47 (1928), 23-24; Simon Schaap and Frits R. Loomeijer, 'Introduction', in Loomeijer, compiler, Dutch Fishing Industry, 1900-1935: RIVO Collection (Alkmaar: Uitgeverij de Alk B.V., 1995), 2-15; Ab Dral, De geschiedenis van het Zoölogisch Station der Nederlandse Dierkundige Vereniging (Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee, NIOZ-Rapport 1988-7); Johan van Bennekom, 'On the History of the Netherlands Institute for Sea Research', History of Oceanography, 12 (2000), 14-15; ICES Secretariat, Basement File (hereafter, 'ICES Secretariat'), folder: history of the Council, Adolf Bückmann, 'A Piece of Small-talk about the ICES, 1923-1939' [manuscript], p. 7; ICES Secretariat, folder: Marine Science History, A. Bückmann, 'Draft Notes', enclosed in a letter to A. E. J. Went, 27 June 1969; Jens Smed, 'Walther Herwig: The First President of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)', in Walter Lenz and Margaret Deacon (eds.), Ocean Sciences: Their History and Relation to Man, Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on the History of Oceanography, Hamburg, 23-29 September 1987. Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift, Ergänzungsheft Reihe B., Nr. 22 (1990), 323-326. For biographical treatments of Herwig, see Friedrich Heincke and Hermann Henking, 'Dr. Walther Herwig, Präsident des Deutschen Seefischerei-Vereins, Ein Gedenkblatt', Mittheilungen des Deutschen Seefischeri-Vereins, 29 (4), (1913), 92-136; and Paul-Friedrich Meyer-Waarden, Walther Herwig, 1838-1912. Portrait eines bedeutenden Staatsdieners und Pioniers, Schriften der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei Hamburg, 13 (1977). See also Walter Lenz, 'Die Überfischung der Nordsee: Ein historischer Überblick des Konfliktes zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft', Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahrbuch, 1 (1992), 87-108. For a detailed account of Hoek's and Herwig's roles in the development of international marine science, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 21-26.
26. H. C. Redeke, 'Dr. Paulus Peronius Cato Hoek', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 47 (1928), 23-24; Simon Schaap and Frits R. Loomeijer, 'Introduction', in Loomeijer, compiler, Dutch Fishing Industry, 1900-1935: RIVO Collection (Alkmaar: Uitgeverij de Alk B.V., 1995), 2-15; Ab Dral, De geschiedenis van het Zoölogisch Station der Nederlandse Dierkundige Vereniging (Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee, NIOZ-Rapport 1988-7); Johan van Bennekom, 'On the History of the Netherlands Institute for Sea Research', History of Oceanography, 12 (2000), 14-15; ICES Secretariat, Basement File (hereafter, 'ICES Secretariat'), folder: history of the Council, Adolf Bückmann, 'A Piece of Small-talk about the ICES, 1923-1939' [manuscript], p. 7; ICES Secretariat, folder: Marine Science History, A. Bückmann, 'Draft Notes', enclosed in a letter to A. E. J. Went, 27 June 1969; Jens Smed, 'Walther Herwig: The First President of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)', in Walter Lenz and Margaret Deacon (eds.), Ocean Sciences: Their History and Relation to Man, Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on the History of Oceanography, Hamburg, 23-29 September 1987. Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift, Ergänzungsheft Reihe B., Nr. 22 (1990), 323-326. For biographical treatments of Herwig, see Friedrich Heincke and Hermann Henking, 'Dr. Walther Herwig, Präsident des Deutschen Seefischerei-Vereins, Ein Gedenkblatt', Mittheilungen des Deutschen Seefischeri-Vereins, 29 (4), (1913), 92-136; and Paul-Friedrich Meyer-Waarden, Walther Herwig, 1838-1912. Portrait eines bedeutenden Staatsdieners und Pioniers, Schriften der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei Hamburg, 13 (1977). See also Walter Lenz, 'Die Überfischung der Nordsee: Ein historischer Überblick des Konfliktes zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft', Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahrbuch, 1 (1992), 87-108. For a detailed account of Hoek's and Herwig's roles in the development of international marine science, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 21-26.
27. H. C. Redeke, 'Dr. Paulus Peronius Cato Hoek', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 47 (1928), 23-24; Simon Schaap and Frits R. Loomeijer, 'Introduction', in Loomeijer, compiler, Dutch Fishing Industry, 1900-1935: RIVO Collection (Alkmaar: Uitgeverij de Alk B.V., 1995), 2-15; Ab Dral, De geschiedenis van het Zoölogisch Station der Nederlandse Dierkundige Vereniging (Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee, NIOZ-Rapport 1988-7); Johan van Bennekom, 'On the History of the Netherlands Institute for Sea Research', History of Oceanography, 12 (2000), 14-15; ICES Secretariat, Basement File (hereafter, 'ICES Secretariat'), folder: history of the Council, Adolf Bückmann, 'A Piece of Small-talk about the ICES, 1923-1939' [manuscript], p. 7; ICES Secretariat, folder: Marine Science History, A. Bückmann, 'Draft Notes', enclosed in a letter to A. E. J. Went, 27 June 1969; Jens Smed, 'Walther Herwig: The First President of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)', in Walter Lenz and Margaret Deacon (eds.), Ocean Sciences: Their History and Relation to Man, Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on the History of Oceanography, Hamburg, 23-29 September 1987. Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift, Ergänzungsheft Reihe B., Nr. 22 (1990), 323-326. For biographical treatments of Herwig, see Friedrich Heincke and Hermann Henking, 'Dr. Walther Herwig, Präsident des Deutschen Seefischerei-Vereins, Ein Gedenkblatt', Mittheilungen des Deutschen Seefischeri-Vereins, 29 (4), (1913), 92-136; and Paul-Friedrich Meyer-Waarden, Walther Herwig, 1838-1912. Portrait eines bedeutenden Staatsdieners und Pioniers, Schriften der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei Hamburg, 13 (1977). See also Walter Lenz, 'Die Überfischung der Nordsee: Ein historischer Überblick des Konfliktes zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft', Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahrbuch, 1 (1992), 87-108. For a detailed account of Hoek's and Herwig's roles in the development of international marine science, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 21-26.
28. H. C. Redeke, 'Dr. Paulus Peronius Cato Hoek', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 47 (1928), 23-24; Simon Schaap and Frits R. Loomeijer, 'Introduction', in Loomeijer, compiler, Dutch Fishing Industry, 1900-1935: RIVO Collection (Alkmaar: Uitgeverij de Alk B.V., 1995), 2-15; Ab Dral, De geschiedenis van het Zoölogisch Station der Nederlandse Dierkundige Vereniging (Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee, NIOZ-Rapport 1988-7); Johan van Bennekom, 'On the History of the Netherlands Institute for Sea Research', History of Oceanography, 12 (2000), 14-15; ICES Secretariat, Basement File (hereafter, 'ICES Secretariat'), folder: history of the Council, Adolf Bückmann, 'A Piece of Small-talk about the ICES, 1923-1939' [manuscript], p. 7; ICES Secretariat, folder: Marine Science History, A. Bückmann, 'Draft Notes', enclosed in a letter to A. E. J. Went, 27 June 1969; Jens Smed, 'Walther Herwig: The First President of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)', in Walter Lenz and Margaret Deacon (eds.), Ocean Sciences: Their History and Relation to Man, Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on the History of Oceanography, Hamburg, 23-29 September 1987. Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift, Ergänzungsheft Reihe B., Nr. 22 (1990), 323-326. For biographical treatments of Herwig, see Friedrich Heincke and Hermann Henking, 'Dr. Walther Herwig, Präsident des Deutschen Seefischerei-Vereins, Ein Gedenkblatt', Mittheilungen des Deutschen Seefischeri-Vereins, 29 (4), (1913), 92-136; and Paul-Friedrich Meyer-Waarden, Walther Herwig, 1838-1912. Portrait eines bedeutenden Staatsdieners und Pioniers, Schriften der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei Hamburg, 13 (1977). See also Walter Lenz, 'Die Überfischung der Nordsee: Ein historischer Überblick des Konfliktes zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft', Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahrbuch, 1 (1992), 87-108. For a detailed account of Hoek's and Herwig's roles in the development of international marine science, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 21-26.
29. H. C. Redeke, 'Dr. Paulus Peronius Cato Hoek', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 47 (1928), 23-24; Simon Schaap and Frits R. Loomeijer, 'Introduction', in Loomeijer, compiler, Dutch Fishing Industry, 1900-1935: RIVO Collection (Alkmaar: Uitgeverij de Alk B.V., 1995), 2-15; Ab Dral, De geschiedenis van het Zoölogisch Station der Nederlandse Dierkundige Vereniging (Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee, NIOZ-Rapport 1988-7); Johan van Bennekom, 'On the History of the Netherlands Institute for Sea Research', History of Oceanography, 12 (2000), 14-15; ICES Secretariat, Basement File (hereafter, 'ICES Secretariat'), folder: history of the Council, Adolf Bückmann, 'A Piece of Small-talk about the ICES, 1923-1939' [manuscript], p. 7; ICES Secretariat, folder: Marine Science History, A. Bückmann, 'Draft Notes', enclosed in a letter to A. E. J. Went, 27 June 1969; Jens Smed, 'Walther Herwig: The First President of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)', in Walter Lenz and Margaret Deacon (eds.), Ocean Sciences: Their History and Relation to Man, Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on the History of Oceanography, Hamburg, 23-29 September 1987. Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift, Ergänzungsheft Reihe B., Nr. 22 (1990), 323-326. For biographical treatments of Herwig, see Friedrich Heincke and Hermann Henking, 'Dr. Walther Herwig, Präsident des Deutschen Seefischerei-Vereins, Ein Gedenkblatt', Mittheilungen des Deutschen Seefischeri-Vereins, 29 (4), (1913), 92-136; and Paul-Friedrich Meyer-Waarden, Walther Herwig, 1838-1912. Portrait eines bedeutenden Staatsdieners und Pioniers, Schriften der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei Hamburg, 13 (1977). See also Walter Lenz, 'Die Überfischung der Nordsee: Ein historischer Überblick des Konfliktes zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft', Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahrbuch, 1 (1992), 87-108. For a detailed account of Hoek's and Herwig's roles in the development of international marine science, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 21-26.
30. H. C. Redeke, 'Dr. Paulus Peronius Cato Hoek', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 47 (1928), 23-24; Simon Schaap and Frits R. Loomeijer, 'Introduction', in Loomeijer, compiler, Dutch Fishing Industry, 1900-1935: RIVO Collection (Alkmaar: Uitgeverij de Alk B.V., 1995), 2-15; Ab Dral, De geschiedenis van het Zoölogisch Station der Nederlandse Dierkundige Vereniging (Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee, NIOZ-Rapport 1988-7); Johan van Bennekom, 'On the History of the Netherlands Institute for Sea Research', History of Oceanography, 12 (2000), 14-15; ICES Secretariat, Basement File (hereafter, 'ICES Secretariat'), folder: history of the Council, Adolf Bückmann, 'A Piece of Small-talk about the ICES, 1923-1939' [manuscript], p. 7; ICES Secretariat, folder: Marine Science History, A. Bückmann, 'Draft Notes', enclosed in a letter to A. E. J. Went, 27 June 1969; Jens Smed, 'Walther Herwig: The First President of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)', in Walter Lenz and Margaret Deacon (eds.), Ocean Sciences: Their History and Relation to Man, Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on the History of Oceanography, Hamburg, 23-29 September 1987. Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift, Ergänzungsheft Reihe B., Nr. 22 (1990), 323-326. For biographical treatments of Herwig, see Friedrich Heincke and Hermann Henking, 'Dr. Walther Herwig, Präsident des Deutschen Seefischerei-Vereins, Ein Gedenkblatt', Mittheilungen des Deutschen Seefischeri-Vereins, 29 (4), (1913), 92-136; and Paul-Friedrich Meyer-Waarden, Walther Herwig, 1838-1912. Portrait eines bedeutenden Staatsdieners und Pioniers, Schriften der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei Hamburg, 13 (1977). See also Walter Lenz, 'Die Überfischung der Nordsee: Ein historischer Überblick des Konfliktes zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft', Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahrbuch, 1 (1992), 87-108. For a detailed account of Hoek's and Herwig's roles in the development of international marine science, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 21-26.
31. H. C. Redeke, 'Dr. Paulus Peronius Cato Hoek', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 47 (1928), 23-24; Simon Schaap and Frits R. Loomeijer, 'Introduction', in Loomeijer, compiler, Dutch Fishing Industry, 1900-1935: RIVO Collection (Alkmaar: Uitgeverij de Alk B.V., 1995), 2-15; Ab Dral, De geschiedenis van het Zoölogisch Station der Nederlandse Dierkundige Vereniging (Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee, NIOZ-Rapport 1988-7); Johan van Bennekom, 'On the History of the Netherlands Institute for Sea Research', History of Oceanography, 12 (2000), 14-15; ICES Secretariat, Basement File (hereafter, 'ICES Secretariat'), folder: history of the Council, Adolf Bückmann, 'A Piece of Small-talk about the ICES, 1923-1939' [manuscript], p. 7; ICES Secretariat, folder: Marine Science History, A. Bückmann, 'Draft Notes', enclosed in a letter to A. E. J. Went, 27 June 1969; Jens Smed, 'Walther Herwig: The First President of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)', in Walter Lenz and Margaret Deacon (eds.), Ocean Sciences: Their History and Relation to Man, Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on the History of Oceanography, Hamburg, 23-29 September 1987. Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift, Ergänzungsheft Reihe B., Nr. 22 (1990), 323-326. For biographical treatments of Herwig, see Friedrich Heincke and Hermann Henking, 'Dr. Walther Herwig, Präsident des Deutschen Seefischerei-Vereins, Ein Gedenkblatt', Mittheilungen des Deutschen Seefischeri-Vereins, 29 (4), (1913), 92-136; and Paul-Friedrich Meyer-Waarden, Walther Herwig, 1838-1912. Portrait eines bedeutenden Staatsdieners und Pioniers, Schriften der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei Hamburg, 13 (1977). See also Walter Lenz, 'Die Überfischung der Nordsee: Ein historischer Überblick des Konfliktes zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft', Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahrbuch, 1 (1992), 87-108. For a detailed account of Hoek's and Herwig's roles in the development of international marine science, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 21-26.
32. H. C. Redeke, 'Dr. Paulus Peronius Cato Hoek', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 47 (1928), 23-24; Simon Schaap and Frits R. Loomeijer, 'Introduction', in Loomeijer, compiler, Dutch Fishing Industry, 1900-1935: RIVO Collection (Alkmaar: Uitgeverij de Alk B.V., 1995), 2-15; Ab Dral, De geschiedenis van het Zoölogisch Station der Nederlandse Dierkundige Vereniging (Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee, NIOZ-Rapport 1988-7); Johan van Bennekom, 'On the History of the Netherlands Institute for Sea Research', History of Oceanography, 12 (2000), 14-15; ICES Secretariat, Basement File (hereafter, 'ICES Secretariat'), folder: history of the Council, Adolf Bückmann, 'A Piece of Small-talk about the ICES, 1923-1939' [manuscript], p. 7; ICES Secretariat, folder: Marine Science History, A. Bückmann, 'Draft Notes', enclosed in a letter to A. E. J. Went, 27 June 1969; Jens Smed, 'Walther Herwig: The First President of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)', in Walter Lenz and Margaret Deacon (eds.), Ocean Sciences: Their History and Relation to Man, Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on the History of Oceanography, Hamburg, 23-29 September 1987. Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift, Ergänzungsheft Reihe B., Nr. 22 (1990), 323-326. For biographical treatments of Herwig, see Friedrich Heincke and Hermann Henking, 'Dr. Walther Herwig, Präsident des Deutschen Seefischerei-Vereins, Ein Gedenkblatt', Mittheilungen des Deutschen Seefischeri-Vereins, 29 (4), (1913), 92-136; and Paul-Friedrich Meyer-Waarden, Walther Herwig, 1838-1912. Portrait eines bedeutenden Staatsdieners und Pioniers, Schriften der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei Hamburg, 13 (1977). See also Walter Lenz, 'Die Überfischung der Nordsee: Ein historischer Überblick des Konfliktes zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft', Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahrbuch, 1 (1992), 87-108. For a detailed account of Hoek's and Herwig's roles in the development of international marine science, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 21-26.
33. H. C. Redeke, 'Dr. Paulus Peronius Cato Hoek', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 47 (1928), 23-24; Simon Schaap and Frits R. Loomeijer, 'Introduction', in Loomeijer, compiler, Dutch Fishing Industry, 1900-1935: RIVO Collection (Alkmaar: Uitgeverij de Alk B.V., 1995), 2-15; Ab Dral, De geschiedenis van het Zoölogisch Station der Nederlandse Dierkundige Vereniging (Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee, NIOZ-Rapport 1988-7); Johan van Bennekom, 'On the History of the Netherlands Institute for Sea Research', History of Oceanography, 12 (2000), 14-15; ICES Secretariat, Basement File (hereafter, 'ICES Secretariat'), folder: history of the Council, Adolf Bückmann, 'A Piece of Small-talk about the ICES, 1923-1939' [manuscript], p. 7; ICES Secretariat, folder: Marine Science History, A. Bückmann, 'Draft Notes', enclosed in a letter to A. E. J. Went, 27 June 1969; Jens Smed, 'Walther Herwig: The First President of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)', in Walter Lenz and Margaret Deacon (eds.), Ocean Sciences: Their History and Relation to Man, Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on the History of Oceanography, Hamburg, 23-29 September 1987. Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift, Ergänzungsheft Reihe B., Nr. 22 (1990), 323-326. For biographical treatments of Herwig, see Friedrich Heincke and Hermann Henking, 'Dr. Walther Herwig, Präsident des Deutschen Seefischerei-Vereins, Ein Gedenkblatt', Mittheilungen des Deutschen Seefischeri-Vereins, 29 (4), (1913), 92-136; and Paul-Friedrich Meyer-Waarden, Walther Herwig, 1838-1912. Portrait eines bedeutenden Staatsdieners und Pioniers, Schriften der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei Hamburg, 13 (1977). See also Walter Lenz, 'Die Überfischung der Nordsee: Ein historischer Überblick des Konfliktes zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft', Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahrbuch, 1 (1992), 87-108. For a detailed account of Hoek's and Herwig's roles in the development of international marine science, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 21-26.
34. H. C. Redeke, 'Dr. Paulus Peronius Cato Hoek', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 47 (1928), 23-24; Simon Schaap and Frits R. Loomeijer, 'Introduction', in Loomeijer, compiler, Dutch Fishing Industry, 1900-1935: RIVO Collection (Alkmaar: Uitgeverij de Alk B.V., 1995), 2-15; Ab Dral, De geschiedenis van het Zoölogisch Station der Nederlandse Dierkundige Vereniging (Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee, NIOZ-Rapport 1988-7); Johan van Bennekom, 'On the History of the Netherlands Institute for Sea Research', History of Oceanography, 12 (2000), 14-15; ICES Secretariat, Basement File (hereafter, 'ICES Secretariat'), folder: history of the Council, Adolf Bückmann, 'A Piece of Small-talk about the ICES, 1923-1939' [manuscript], p. 7; ICES Secretariat, folder: Marine Science History, A. Bückmann, 'Draft Notes', enclosed in a letter to A. E. J. Went, 27 June 1969; Jens Smed, 'Walther Herwig: The First President of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)', in Walter Lenz and Margaret Deacon (eds.), Ocean Sciences: Their History and Relation to Man, Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on the History of Oceanography, Hamburg, 23-29 September 1987. Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift, Ergänzungsheft Reihe B., Nr. 22 (1990), 323-326. For biographical treatments of Herwig, see Friedrich Heincke and Hermann Henking, 'Dr. Walther Herwig, Präsident des Deutschen Seefischerei-Vereins, Ein Gedenkblatt', Mittheilungen des Deutschen Seefischeri-Vereins, 29 (4), (1913), 92-136; and Paul-Friedrich Meyer-Waarden, Walther Herwig, 1838-1912. Portrait eines bedeutenden Staatsdieners und Pioniers, Schriften der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei Hamburg, 13 (1977). See also Walter Lenz, 'Die Überfischung der Nordsee: Ein historischer Überblick des Konfliktes zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft', Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahrbuch, 1 (1992), 87-108. For a detailed account of Hoek's and Herwig's roles in the development of international marine science, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 21-26.
35. ICES, Bulletin des résultats acquis pendent de croisières périodiques (August 1903); Went, op. cit. note 7, 13-54; Jens Smed, 'History of International North Sea Research (ICES)', in Jürgen Sündermann and Walter Lenz (eds.), North Sea Dynamics (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1983), 1-25; Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 43-44.
36. ICES, Bulletin des résultats acquis pendent de croisières périodiques (August 1903); Went, op. cit. note 7, 13-54; Jens Smed, 'History of International North Sea Research (ICES)', in Jürgen Sündermann and Walter Lenz (eds.), North Sea Dynamics (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1983), 1-25; Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 43-44.
37. ICES, Bulletin des résultats acquis pendent de croisières périodiques (August 1903); Went, op. cit. note 7, 13-54; Jens Smed, 'History of International North Sea Research (ICES)', in Jürgen Sündermann and Walter Lenz (eds.), North Sea Dynamics (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1983), 1-25; Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 43-44.
38. ICES, Bulletin des résultats acquis pendent de croisières périodiques (August 1903); Went, op. cit. note 7, 13-54; Jens Smed, 'History of International North Sea Research (ICES)', in Jürgen Sündermann and Walter Lenz (eds.), North Sea Dynamics (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1983), 1-25; Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 43-44.
39. For a list of vessels that participated through 1904, see Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 3, (1904), 10-11; Julia Lajus, 'Foreign Science in Russian Context: Murman Scientific-Fishery Expedition and Russian Participation in Early ICES Activity', in Emory Anderson (ed.), 100 Years of Science under ICES: A Symposium held in Helsinki, 1-4 August 2000, no. 215 in the ICES Marine Science Symposia series (Copenhagen: ICES, 2002), 64-72. For information on Michael Sars, see Vera Schwach, Havet, fisken og vitenskapen. Fra fiskeriundersøkelser til havforskningsinstitutt 1860-2000. (Havforskningsinstituttet/John Grieg AS, 2000), 109-113, 177-179; and John Murray and Johan Hjort, The Depths of the Ocean (London: Macmillan and Co., 1912), ch. 2.
40. For a list of vessels that participated through 1904, see Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 3, (1904), 10-11; Julia Lajus, 'Foreign Science in Russian Context: Murman Scientific-Fishery Expedition and Russian Participation in Early ICES Activity', in Emory Anderson (ed.), 100 Years of Science under ICES: A Symposium held in Helsinki, 1-4 August 2000, no. 215 in the ICES Marine Science Symposia series (Copenhagen: ICES, 2002), 64-72. For information on Michael Sars, see Vera Schwach, Havet, fisken og vitenskapen. Fra fiskeriundersøkelser til havforskningsinstitutt 1860-2000. (Havforskningsinstituttet/John Grieg AS, 2000), 109-113, 177-179; and John Murray and Johan Hjort, The Depths of the Ocean (London: Macmillan and Co., 1912), ch. 2.
41. For a list of vessels that participated through 1904, see Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 3, (1904), 10-11; Julia Lajus, 'Foreign Science in Russian Context: Murman Scientific-Fishery Expedition and Russian Participation in Early ICES Activity', in Emory Anderson (ed.), 100 Years of Science under ICES: A Symposium held in Helsinki, 1-4 August 2000, no. 215 in the ICES Marine Science Symposia series (Copenhagen: ICES, 2002), 64-72. For information on Michael Sars, see Vera Schwach, Havet, fisken og vitenskapen. Fra fiskeriundersøkelser til havforskningsinstitutt 1860-2000. (Havforskningsinstituttet/John Grieg AS, 2000), 109-113, 177-179; and John Murray and Johan Hjort, The Depths of the Ocean (London: Macmillan and Co., 1912), ch. 2.
42. For a list of vessels that participated through 1904, see Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 3, (1904), 10-11; Julia Lajus, 'Foreign Science in Russian Context: Murman Scientific-Fishery Expedition and Russian Participation in Early ICES Activity', in Emory Anderson (ed.), 100 Years of Science under ICES: A Symposium held in Helsinki, 1-4 August 2000, no. 215 in the ICES Marine Science Symposia series (Copenhagen: ICES, 2002), 64-72. For information on Michael Sars, see Vera Schwach, Havet, fisken og vitenskapen. Fra fiskeriundersøkelser til havforskningsinstitutt 1860-2000. (Havforskningsinstituttet/John Grieg AS, 2000), 109-113, 177-179; and John Murray and Johan Hjort, The Depths of the Ocean (London: Macmillan and Co., 1912), ch. 2.
43. For an account of the geopolitical discussions behind the headquarters and laboratory locations of ICES, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 37-39; for more on the Central Laboratory, see 45-47.
44. Fridtjof Nansen Brev, vol. II (Oslo, 1961), letter no. 310, Fridtjof Nansen to Otto Blehr (Norwegian prime minister), 11 August 1902. The letter is translated and quoted in Jens Smed, 'The Central Laboratory of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, and its Successors' (manuscript). Nansen was not the only Norwegian marine scientist who became a devoted adherent to internationalism. See Vera Schwach, 'Internationalist and Norwegian at the Same Time: Johan Hjort and ICES', in Anderson (ed.), op. cit. note 12, 39-44.
45. Fridtjof Nansen Brev, vol. II (Oslo, 1961), letter no. 310, Fridtjof Nansen to Otto Blehr (Norwegian prime minister), 11 August 1902. The letter is translated and quoted in Jens Smed, 'The Central Laboratory of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, and its Successors' (manuscript). Nansen was not the only Norwegian marine scientist who became a devoted adherent to internationalism. See Vera Schwach, 'Internationalist and Norwegian at the Same Time: Johan Hjort and ICES', in Anderson (ed.), op. cit. note 12, 39-44.
46. The production of 'standard' seawater was an official responsibility of the Council. After 1914, the Council's hydrographer, Martin Knudsen, took over the job in a personal capacity. Not long before his death, Knudsen transferred this responsibility to the Association International d'Oceanographie' Physique (AIOP). Jens Smed, 'The History of Standard Seawater', Oceanologica Acta, 2 (3), (1979), 355-364.
47. ICES Secretariat, folder: History of the Council, Nansen to Hjort, August 1906 (copy). This English-language memorandum is a translated excerpt of a letter in Norwegian from Nansen to Hjort, 23 April 1906, giving his opinion on the future of the Central Laboratory. The English version was probably prepared for the consideration of the Bureau or the Council. The original letter was published in Fridtjof Nansen Brev, vol. II (Oslo, 1961), letter no. 405.
48. For more detailed treatment of improvements to oceanographic equipment accomplished by the Central Laboratory, see Smed, 'The Central Laboratory'; and Anita McConnell, No Sea Too Deep: The History of Oceanographic Instruments (Bristol: Adam Hilger, Ltd, 1982), 117-130.
49. For more detailed treatment of improvements to oceanographic equipment accomplished by the Central Laboratory, see Smed, 'The Central Laboratory'; and Anita McConnell, No Sea Too Deep: The History of Oceanographic Instruments (Bristol: Adam Hilger, Ltd, 1982), 117-130.
50. Tim D. Smith, 'The Woods Hole Bottom-Trawl Resource Survey: Development of Fisheries-Independent Multispecies Monitoring', in Anderson (ed.), op. cit. note 12, 474-482.
51. Charles A. Kofoid, The Biological Stations of Europe, Bulletin of the US Bureau of Education, 4 (440), (1910), 2.
52. Collation and publication of hydrographic and plankton data by participating countries began what is today one of the longest-time series of data, very valuable to oceanographers. See J. Meincke, L. Otto, A. J. Lee, R. R. Dickson, 'Introduction', in Meincke, Otto, Lee, and Dickson (eds.), Hydrobiological Variability in the North Atlantic and Adjacent Seas: Papers presented to Jens Smed on the Occasion of his Retirement, Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 185 (1984), 4-6; Robert R. Dickson, 'Dr. Robert R. Dickson Praises Five ICES Scientists in Speech at Symposium Dinner', ICES - CIEM Information, 18 (1991), 4, 9.
53. Collation and publication of hydrographic and plankton data by participating countries began what is today one of the longest-time series of data, very valuable to oceanographers. See J. Meincke, L. Otto, A. J. Lee, R. R. Dickson, 'Introduction', in Meincke, Otto, Lee, and Dickson (eds.), Hydrobiological Variability in the North Atlantic and Adjacent Seas: Papers presented to Jens Smed on the Occasion of his Retirement, Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 185 (1984), 4-6; Robert R. Dickson, 'Dr. Robert R. Dickson Praises Five ICES Scientists in Speech at Symposium Dinner', ICES - CIEM Information, 18 (1991), 4, 9.
54. For the wider context, see Roy MacLeod and Philip Rehbock, 'Developing a Sense of the Pacific: The Pan-Pacific Congress in Australia', Pacific Science, 54 (3), 209-226.
55. After 1815, over 450 non-governmental and more than thirty governmental organizations were founded. ICES numbered among the twenty governmental organizations that survived the First World War. See Lyons, op. cit. note 4, 11-35.
56. Drechsel, 'Lecture Held by C.F. Drechsel'.
57. Following a meeting of representatives of the neutral countries in May 1918, the General Secretary issued a letter outlining 'the necessity of resuming, immediately after the war, international scientific investigations in the North Sea and adjacent waters'. ICES, Box 131, folder: 8.B, 1913-1924, Drechsel to the Delegates of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, 1 June 1918, with enclosures, including Drechsel to Delegates, 30 May 1918.
58. Drechsel believed that the Council's work was 'to prepare international laws for the protection of fisheries based on scientific investigation'. ICES, Box 127, folder: 7.F, 1913-1924, Drechsel to C. Dehile Burns, Esq., Intelligence Division, Ministry of Labour (London), 10 April 1920.
59. Otto Pettersson and G. Schott, 'On the Importance of an International Exploration of the Atlantic Ocean in Respect to its Physical and Biological Conditions', The Scottish Geographical Magazine, 25 (1909), 23-28.
60. Otto Pettersson and C.F. Drechsel, 'Memorandum on Investigations in the Atlantic Ocean and Programme for the Same', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 16 (1913), 1-21.
61. Jeffrey P. Brosco, 'Henry Bryant Bigelow, the US Bureau of Fisheries, and Intensive Area Study', Social Studies of Science, 19 (2), (1989), 239-264.
62. ICES, Box 16, folder: 1.D, 1917-1950, Pettersson to Drechsel, 12 November 1921.
63. ICES, Box 78, folder: 6.H Atlantic Committee, Henry B. Bigelow, 'Status and activities of the North American Council on Fisheries Investigations' [1931 or 1933]; Emory Anderson, 'The History of Fisheries Management and Scientific Advice: The ICNAF/NAFO History from the End of World War II to the Present', Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fishery Science, 23, (1998), 75-94; Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 101-102.
64. ICES, Box 78, folder: 6.H Atlantic Committee, Henry B. Bigelow, 'Status and activities of the North American Council on Fisheries Investigations' [1931 or 1933]; Emory Anderson, 'The History of Fisheries Management and Scientific Advice: The ICNAF/NAFO History from the End of World War II to the Present', Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fishery Science, 23, (1998), 75-94; Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 101-102.
65. ICES, Box 78, folder: 6.H Atlantic Committee, Henry B. Bigelow, 'Status and activities of the North American Council on Fisheries Investigations' [1931 or 1933]; Emory Anderson, 'The History of Fisheries Management and Scientific Advice: The ICNAF/NAFO History from the End of World War II to the Present', Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fishery Science, 23, (1998), 75-94; Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 101-102.
66. ICES, Box 135, folder: 9.C, 1927-1928, UN, League of Nations, Economic Committee, 'Exploitation of the Products of the Sea', Geneva, 26 March 1928.
67. Michael Graham, The Fish Gate (London: Faber, 1943); Graham, 'Overfishing and Optimum Fishing', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 132 (1952), 72-78; E. S. Russell, The Overfishing Problem (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1942).
68. Michael Graham, The Fish Gate (London: Faber, 1943); Graham, 'Overfishing and Optimum Fishing', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 132 (1952), 72-78; E. S. Russell, The Overfishing Problem (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1942).
69. Michael Graham, The Fish Gate (London: Faber, 1943); Graham, 'Overfishing and Optimum Fishing', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 132 (1952), 72-78; E. S. Russell, The Overfishing Problem (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1942).
70. Bückmann, 'Draft Notes'. For detailed discussion of 1930s advances in fisheries science and ICES's role in achieving the 1937 Overfishing Convention, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 77-110.
71. Bückmann, 'Draft Notes'. For detailed discussion of 1930s advances in fisheries science and ICES's role in achieving the 1937 Overfishing Convention, see Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 77-110.
72. Johan Hjort, 'Fluctuations in the Great Fisheries of Northern Europe Viewed in the Light of Biological Research', Rapports et Procès-Verbaux, 20 (1914).
73. Roger Revelle, 'International Cooperation in Marine Sciences', Science, 126 (1957), 1319-1323. For a nuanced explication of the actual and rhetorical commitment of Revelle's generation to internationalism and the applications of oceanography, see Jacob Darwin Hamblin, 'Oceanography and International Cooperation during the early Cold War' (PhD dissertation, unpublished, University of California, Santa Barbara, 2001).
74. Roger Revelle, 'International Cooperation in Marine Sciences', Science, 126 (1957), 1319-1323. For a nuanced explication of the actual and rhetorical commitment of Revelle's generation to internationalism and the applications of oceanography, see Jacob Darwin Hamblin, 'Oceanography and International Cooperation during the early Cold War' (PhD dissertation, unpublished, University of California, Santa Barbara, 2001).
75. ICES, Box 138, folder: 9N FAO 1940-1957, Harald Blegvad to Darcy Finn, 28 June 1947, and Finn to Blegvad, 22 July 1947.
76. Johan Hjort, 'The Renaissance of the Individual', Journal du Conseil, 15 (2), (1947), 157-168; quotation is on 157.
77. Post-Second World War internationalism strongly reflected the Cold War political context. ICES was, of course, not immune from these forces, particularly after the Soviet Union and Poland joined in 1955. However, the immediate postwar period, during which time the international fisheries management commissions were formed, also reflected the continued influence of turn-of-the-century internationalism.
78. ICES, Box 4, folder: 1.A.3, 1946-1948, Johan Hjort, 'Hjorts Tale und Middagen?' [typescript of opening remarks], 27 March 1946.
79. None of the African countries that expressed interest in membership applied formally. Probably this was due to their inability to pay the membership fees, although unstable political situations may have also contributed. The countries involved were the Republic of Dahomey (now Benin), Cameroon, and Ivory Coast
80. Poland, which joined in 1924, withdrew in 1951. East Germany was left out of the International Council until 1973, but was represented unofficially in non-governmental organizations such as the Congress of Baltic Oceanographers. See Rozwadowski, op. cit. note 2, 207-208, 218, 231-232.
81. In both cases, interest in ICES membership was increased by the signing in 1964 of an international convention that changed ICES from essentially a gentleman's agreement organized through diplomatic channels to an official intergovernmental organization with a status similar to that of United Nations bodies. North American interest was also enhanced by the events that led to the establishment of 200-mile exclusive economic zones and the Law of the Sea Conventions. The ICES Convention was ratified by all member states by the end of 1967.
82. Henry Maurice, quoted in Went, op. cit. note 7, 72. Although Maurice said this first, the same words also appear in C.E. Lucas, 'Aspects of Marine Fisheries Research', The Advancement of Science, 21 (1964), 1-11, 11.
83. Henry Maurice, quoted in Went, op. cit. note 7, 72. Although Maurice said this first, the same words also appear in C.E. Lucas, 'Aspects of Marine Fisheries Research', The Advancement of Science, 21 (1964), 1-11, 11.
84. R.J.H. Beverton and S.J. Holt, On the Dynamics of Exploited Fish Populations, Fisheries Investigations, Series 2 (London: Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food, 1957).
85. The method, called Virtual Population Analysis, was devised by John Gulland, a mathematician working at the Lowestoft Laboratory; ICES Library, ICES, 'Estimation of Mortality Rates', Annex 6 to Report of Arctic Fisheries Working Group, ICES C.M. 1965, Gadoid Fish Committee, Doc. 3 (mimeo).
86. John Krige, 'The Politics of European Scientific Cooperation', in John Krige and Dominique Pestre (eds.), Science in the Twentieth Century (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1997), 897-918. See also Greta Jones, Science, Politics, and the Cold War (London: Routledge, 1988); and Brigitte Schroeder-Gudehus, Les scientifiques et la paix: la communauté scientifique internationale au cours des années 20 (Montreal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal, 1978). Thanks to Ronald Doel for giving me permission to read his manuscript, 'Internationalism after 1940'.
87. John Krige, 'The Politics of European Scientific Cooperation', in John Krige and Dominique Pestre (eds.), Science in the Twentieth Century (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1997), 897-918. See also Greta Jones, Science, Politics, and the Cold War (London: Routledge, 1988); and Brigitte Schroeder-Gudehus, Les scientifiques et la paix: la communauté scientifique internationale au cours des années 20 (Montreal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal, 1978). Thanks to Ronald Doel for giving me permission to read his manuscript, 'Internationalism after 1940'.
88. John Krige, 'The Politics of European Scientific Cooperation', in John Krige and Dominique Pestre (eds.), Science in the Twentieth Century (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1997), 897-918. See also Greta Jones, Science, Politics, and the Cold War (London: Routledge, 1988); and Brigitte Schroeder-Gudehus, Les scientifiques et la paix: la communauté scientifique internationale au cours des années 20 (Montreal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal, 1978). Thanks to Ronald Doel for giving me permission to read his manuscript, 'Internationalism after 1940'.
89. Hamblin illuminates another aspect of the international movement, namely the inclusion of 'world peace' in the mission of the Pacific Science Association. Jacob Darwin Hamblin, 'Visions of International Scientific Cooperation: The Case of Oceanic Science, 1920-1955', Minerva, 38 (4), (2000), 393-423. See also Hamblin, op. cit. note 35.
90. Hamblin illuminates another aspect of the international movement, namely the inclusion of 'world peace' in the mission of the Pacific Science Association. Jacob Darwin Hamblin, 'Visions of International Scientific Cooperation: The Case of Oceanic Science, 1920-1955', Minerva, 38 (4), (2000), 393-423. See also Hamblin, op. cit. note 35.
91. Lyons, op. cit. note 4, 11-35; Greenaway, op. cit. note 5, 1-44; Crawford, op. cit. note 5.
92. Lyons, op. cit. note 4, 11-35; Greenaway, op. cit. note 5, 1-44; Crawford, op. cit. note 5.
93. Lyons, op. cit. note 4, 11-35; Greenaway, op. cit. note 5, 1-44; Crawford, op. cit. note 5.
94. Greenaway, op. cit. note 5; Elisabeth Crawford, The Beginnings of the Nobel Institution: The Science Prizes, 1901-1915 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Crawford, op. cit. note 5. For a more recent review, see Roy MacLeod, 'Der Wissenschaftliche Internationalismus in der Krise: Die Akademien der Alliierten und ihr Reaktion auf des Ersten Weltkrieg', in Wolfram Fischer (ed.), Die Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1914-1945 (Berlin: Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2000), 317-349.
95. Greenaway, op. cit. note 5; Elisabeth Crawford, The Beginnings of the Nobel Institution: The Science Prizes, 1901-1915 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Crawford, op. cit. note 5. For a more recent review, see Roy MacLeod, 'Der Wissenschaftliche Internationalismus in der Krise: Die Akademien der Alliierten und ihr Reaktion auf des Ersten Weltkrieg', in Wolfram Fischer (ed.), Die Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1914-1945 (Berlin: Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2000), 317-349.
96. Greenaway, op. cit. note 5; Elisabeth Crawford, The Beginnings of the Nobel Institution: The Science Prizes, 1901-1915 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Crawford, op. cit. note 5. For a more recent review, see Roy MacLeod, 'Der Wissenschaftliche Internationalismus in der Krise: Die Akademien der Alliierten und ihr Reaktion auf des Ersten Weltkrieg', in Wolfram Fischer (ed.), Die Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1914-1945 (Berlin: Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2000), 317-349.
97. Greenaway, op. cit. note 5; Elisabeth Crawford, The Beginnings of the Nobel Institution: The Science Prizes, 1901-1915 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Crawford, op. cit. note 5. For a more recent review, see Roy MacLeod, 'Der Wissenschaftliche Internationalismus in der Krise: Die Akademien der Alliierten und ihr Reaktion auf des Ersten Weltkrieg', in Wolfram Fischer (ed.), Die Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1914-1945 (Berlin: Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2000), 317-349.
98. Elisabeth Crawford, Terry Shinn, and Sverker Sörlin, 'The Nationalization and Denationalization of the Sciences: An Introductory Essay', in Crawford, Shinn, and Sörlin (eds.), Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of International Scientific Practice (Dortrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1993), 1-42, quotation on p. 1. Although many of their examples refer to the laboratory sciences - reflecting long-held biases in the historiography of science - these authors point out that the field sciences generally preceded others in organizing internationally. Even so, some of the earliest examples of this (e.g., geodesy and meteorology) are not represented in their volume.
99. Within the past two decades, some historians of science have turned their attention to the field sciences, demonstrating that they are especially good vehicles for studying the political and economic forces that drive science, the technologies that change the way investigation is done, and the cultural and social traditions that practitioners bring to their fields of study. Henrika Kuklick and Robert E. Kohler, 'Introduction', in Kuklick and Kohler (eds.), Science in the Field, Osiris, 11 (1996), 1-14. This is especially conspicuous in the history of the 'colonial sciences'. See Roy MacLeod (ed.), Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, Osiris, 15 (2001), 1-15.
100. Within the past two decades, some historians of science have turned their attention to the field sciences, demonstrating that they are especially good vehicles for studying the political and economic forces that drive science, the technologies that change the way investigation is done, and the cultural and social traditions that practitioners bring to their fields of study. Henrika Kuklick and Robert E. Kohler, 'Introduction', in Kuklick and Kohler (eds.), Science in the Field, Osiris, 11 (1996), 1-14. This is especially conspicuous in the history of the 'colonial sciences'. See Roy MacLeod (ed.), Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, Osiris, 15 (2001), 1-15.
101. Kaat Schulte Fischedick and Terry Shinn, 'The International Phytogeographical Excursions, 1911-1923', in Crawford, Shinn, and Sörlin (eds.), op. cit. note 50, 107-131.
102. Duncan Carr Agnew, 'History of Seismology', in William H. K. Lee, Hiroo Kanamori, and Carl Kisslinger, (eds.), International Handbook of Earthquake and Engineering Seismology, Part A (San Diego: Academic Press, 2002), 3-13. I am grateful to Duncan Agnew for bringing my attention to the case of international seismology.
103. Trevor H. Levere, Science and the Canadian Arctic: A Century of Exploration, 1818-1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); William Barr, The Expeditions of the First International Polar Year, 1882-1883 (Calgary: Arctic Institute of North America, 1985).
104. Trevor H. Levere, Science and the Canadian Arctic: A Century of Exploration, 1818-1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); William Barr, The Expeditions of the First International Polar Year, 1882-1883 (Calgary: Arctic Institute of North America, 1985).
105. An interesting contrast to a later time period, in which permanent institutionalization took place, might be the case of science in Antarctica under the 1979 treaty. Aant Elzinga, 'Antarctica: The Construction of a Continent by and for Science', in Crawford, Shinn, and Sörlin (eds.), op. cit. note 50, 73-106.
106. Mark R. Finlay, 'International Science on the Fringes: Agricultural Scientists and the Culture and Language of International Science', History of Science Society Meeting, Pittsburgh, November 1999. I am greatly indebted to Mark Finlay for his participation in a session I organized on internationalism and science. His findings prompted me to undertake the comparisons in this paper.
107. Finlay, ibid. Arguably, the situation of agricultural science became quite different with the green revolution.