The introduction of quality labels in the prostitution sector as a means to combat trafficking in human beings

European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 59-88

  Rijken, Conny ^a   Van Krimpen, Linda ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 40049099240     PISSN: 09289569     EISSN: 15718174     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/092895608X272589     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, UN Doc. A/45/49 (Vol. I) (2001).
2. C. Rijken and L. van Krimpen, 'European Quality Labels in the Prostitution Sector. A Pilot Study on the Development and the Feasibility of Introducing European Quality Labels in the Prostitution Sector in the Netherlands', in: G. Vermeulen, ed., EU Quality Standards in Support of the Fight against Trafficking in Human Beings and Sexual Exploitation of Children, (Antwerp 2007) pp. 209-282.
3. Staatsblad [Netherlands Bulletin of Acts and Decrees] 2000, 38 and 1999, 464.
4. A. Daalder, Het bordeeherbod opgeheven, Prostitutie 2000-2001, final report, WODC, (The Hague 2002), 7-10.
5. A. Dorn and C. Rijken, Awareness-Raising of Judicial Authorities Concerning Trafficking in Human Beings, Netherlands Country Report, International Organisation for Migration, 2005.
6. Dutch National Rapporteur on THB, Trafficking in Human Beings, First Report, Bureau NRM, (The Hague 2002) p. 29.
7. S. Flight et al., Evaluatie opheffing bordeelverbod, Gemeentelijk beleid, conducted by DSP group, WODC (The Hague 2006) pp. 6-7.
8. S. Flight et al., loc. cit., pp. 28-29. 46% does not have a policy on escort services and 50% has no policy on home prostitution. See Section 2.3.
9. A. Daalder, Prostitutie in Nederland na opheffing van het bordeelverbod, WODC (The Hague 2007), p. 31.
10. 〈http://www.bestuurlijkhandhaven.nl/doc/Model-APV%20VNG0/ o20over%20seksinrichtingen. pdf〉.
11. In Article 3.1.1, sex establishments (seksinrichtingen) are defined as: "closed premises accessible to the public where sexual services take place as part of business activities or to such an extent that they amount to business activities." Given this definition, it is not clear whether home prostitution is included or not, since this is dependent on the interpretation by each municipality.
12. For the explanation of the content of the term 'bad behavior' in this regard, see 〈http://www.rechtspraak.nl〉 LJN:AV8180,'s Hertogenbosch District Court, Awb 05/558 of 24 March 2006, and RvS [Council of State], file no. 200603367/1 of 28 February 2007.
13. Paragraph 2 states that the entrepreneur and the manager may not be placed in a psychiatric hospital on the basis of Article 37 Dutch Criminal Code (based on a judicial decision) or detained under a hospital order (on the basis of Article 37a DCC). Furthermore, he may not have been unconditionally sentenced in the last five years, to six months or more imprisonment and he may not be held on remand on the basis of Article 67 Dutch Code of Criminal Procedure (b). Under c he may not have been sentenced to a fine of more than EUR 500 or any other penalty of Article 9 (1) (a) DCC for violation of the Licensing and Catering Act (Drank- en horecawet), the Opium Act, the Aliens Act, or the Foreign Nationals (Employment) Act (Wet arbeid vreemdelingen), for the commission of certain crimes, (drunk driving, driving while under a driving ban, refusal of cooperation in a breathalyzer test after causing an accident or after suspicion of drunk driving), for a violation of the Betting and Gaming Act (Wet op de kansspelen), the Militias Act (Wet op de weerkorpsen), or Articles 54 and 55 of the Weapons and Ammunition Act (Wet wapens en munitie).
14. Dutch National Rapporteur on THB, Trafficking in Human Beings, Third Report, Bureau NRM (The Hague 2004), p. 37.
15. S. Flight et al., loc. cit., p. 63.
16. Dutch National Rapporteur on THB (2002), op. cit., p. 31.
17. S. Flight et al., loc. cit., p. 63.
18. S. Flight et al., loc. cit., p. 44.
19. The legalised part of the sector criticise the police because they have the impression that they are more frequently checked by the police compared to the illegal part of the sector. S. Flight et al., loc. cit., p. 64, 66
20. A. Daalder (2007) pp. 56, 58, 84.
21. Dutch National Rapporteur on THB (2004), op. cit., pp. 132-133.
22. STV (Foundation against Trafficking in Women) stated that 17% of the victims of THB were working in the permitted part of the sector and that there are good reasons to monitor this part intensively. See also section 2.3.
23. On the differences between administrative supervision and law enforcement supervision see F.C.M.A. Michiels, Hoofdzaken van het bestuursrecht, (Deventer 2006), pp. 140-145, 164-168.
24. A. Daalder (2007), loc. cit., pp. 76-78, 86, 88.
25. S. Biesma et al., Verboden bordelen, conducted by Intraval, WODC, 2006, p. III.
26. These positive effects were also found in the first evaluation, A. Daalder (2002), loc. cit., pp. 37-45.
27. A. Daalder (2007), loc. cit., pp. 58, 83.
28. S. Biesma et al., loc. cit., pp. 103, 111.
29. A. Daalder (2007), loc. cit., pp. 82, 89.
30. S. Biesma et al., loc. cit., pp. 49, 52, 60, 66, 67.
31. S. Biesma et al., loc. cit., pp. 114-115.
32. A. Daalder (2007), loc. cit., p. 29.
33. A. Daalder (2007), loc. cit., pp. 81, 86.
34. S. Biesma et al., loc. cit., p. 27.
35. These two terms seem to be mixed up now and then in the evaluation, at least, they are not consistently applied. A. Daalder (2007), loc. cit., p. 74.
36. S. Biesma et al., loc. cit., pp. 14-16.
37. S. Flight et al., loc. cit., 2006, pp. 69-70.
38. Evaluatie Rotterdams Prostitutiebeleid, 'Een onderzoek naar de lokale effecten van drie jaar opheffing bordeelverbod' [An Evaluation of the prostitution policy in Rotterdam], Rotterdam, June 2004, p. 29.
39. A. Daalder (2007), loc. cit., p. 52.
40. M. Goderie and H. Boutelier, Prostitutie in Rotterdam 2006, Utrecht: Verwey-Jonker Instituut, pp. 49, 52.
41. H. Dekker et al., De sociale positie van prostituees 2006, conducted by Regioplan, WODC, (The Hague 2006), pp. 70-71.
42. Interview with M. de Kock, STV on 30 October 2006.
43. A. Daalder (2007), loc. cit., p. 86.
44. S. Biesma et al., loc. cit., p. 82.
45. A. Daalder (2007), loc. cit., pp. 61-67.
46. M. de Jonge, Rood licht voor prostitutie in loondienst?, [Red light to contracts of employment in the prostitution sector?] University Utrecht, (Utrecht 2006), pp. 7-8.
47. M. de Jonge, op. cit., pp. 9-21.
48. R. Zuidema, M. Aerts, K. Boonstra, Arbeidsrecht voor prostitutees? De (on)mogelijkheid van toepassing van het arbeidsrecht op arbeidsverhoudingen in de prostitutiebranche, [Labour law for prostitutes. The (im)possibility to apply labour law in the prostitution sector], Hugo Sinzheimer Institute, (Amsterdam 2007), pp. 5-39.
49. ECJ, 9 September 2003, Case C-151/02 (Jaeger).
50. L. Veniez and I. Vanwesenbeeck, Er gaat iets veranderen in deprostitutie ... De sociale positie en het psychosociaal welzijn van prostituees in prostitutiebedrijven voorafgaand aan de opheffing van het bordeelverbod, [Something is changing in the prostitution sector ... ], Utrecht: Nisso Group (Utrecht 2000), p. 51.
51. SBR 04/344 Utrecht District Court, 13 July 2005, Awb 04/108 and Awb 04/235 's-Hertogenbosch District Court, 2 June 2005, WB 03/2457 ALGEM 's-Hertogenbosch District Court, 27 May 2005, WB 03/986 ALGEM STRA Groningen District Court 17 januari 2005, PREMIE 03/3385-ZWI Rotterdam District Court, 30 December 2004, P03/02264 Amsterdam Court of Appeal, 8 September 2005, CRvB [Central Appeals Tribunal (for the public service and for social security matters)], 5 January 2006, no. 05/764 ALGEM and 05/1391 ALGEM. For a more elaborate review of relevant case law, see R. Zuidema, M. Aerts, K. Boonstra, op. cit., Chapter 3, section 3.2.
52. T. Porter and K. Ronit, 'Self-Regulation as a Policy Process: The Multiple and Criss-Crossing Stages of Private Rule-Making', 39 Policy Sciences (2006) p. 43.
53. L. Senden, Soft Law 'Self-Regulation and Co-Regulation in European Law: Where Do They Meet?', 9.1 EJCL, (2005) section 3.1.
54. G. Evers, Blind Vertrouwen? Een onderzoek naar de toepassing van certificatie ten dienste van de handhaving van wettelijke voorschriften, (Den Haag 2002) pp. 22, 33-53.
55. G. Evers, op. cit., pp. 55-62.
56. G. Evers, op. cit., p. 20.
57. For instance, the ISO norms developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation or norms or technical requirements developed by one of the European standard-setting bodies (CEN, the European Committee for Standardisation, ETSI, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute, or CENELEC, the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardisation).
58. Directive 2006/123/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on Services in the Internal Market, OJ L 376, 27.12.2006, p. 36, consideration 102.
59. Directive 98/34/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 June 1998, OJ L 204, 21.7.1998, p. 37, last amended by the 2003 Act of Accession.
60. Specific aspects of self-regulation come to the fore if it is initiated, coordinated, or supervised from the EU level. For the more constitutional aspects, see, L. Senden, loc. cit.
61. A. Daalder (2007), loc. cit., p. 86.
62. Quality labels should be introduced at the EU level to prevent that traffickers move their activities to other EU Member States and also because a quality label in which the government has a role might be considered a violation of the state obligations based on the EC Treaty, for instance the free movement of services or goods, Case C-325/00, RE Quality Label Scheme: EC Commission v. Germany, 5 November 2002.
63. M. Goderie and H. Boutelier, loc. cit., pp. 52-53, 60-64.
64. In The Hague, 'home workers' must have a permit as well. For them 'lighter' permit requirements apply.
65. See section 4.3 below.
66. G. Vermeulen, op. cit., p. 16.
67. G. Vermeulen, op. cit., p. 17. See also Section 4.2.
68. Article 3.3.2 Model APV.
69. Aanwijzing Mensenhandel [Trafficking in Human Beings Guideline], Board of Procurators General, 6 March 2006, Staatscourant, 2006, 58.
70. Appendix 3 to the Trafficking in Human Beings Guideline.
71. It should be noted that we first designed two different sets of indicators, namely one for prostitutes working under an employment contract and one for prostitutes working independently. However, since many indicators overlap, we combined the two lists in the annex to this article.
72. G. Vermeulen, op. cit., pp. 19-20.
73. In total, four establishments in this sector were interviewed.
74. Five prostitutes were interviewed; one of them worked in the escort sector.
75. In this category, twelve persons/organisations were interviewed.
76. A total of 18 clients filled in the questionnaires. Ten of them were visitors of brothels, while eight were clients of the escort sector.
77. Seven persons working for municipalities, police, or GGD (Municipal Health Service) were interviewed.
78. See also Section 2.3.
79. 'Dossier Huurcommissie' [Rents Commission] at 〈http://www.vrom.nl/ pagina.html?id=10149〉.
80. In conformity with ECJ 9 September 2003, Case C-151/02 (Jaeger).
81. Aanwijzing Mensenhandel, Board of Procurators General, 6 March 2006, Staatscourant, 2006, 58.
82. In the period January-June 2006, 78 reports were forwarded to the police by the reporting point of which 63 were useful for the police, 〈http://www.meldmisdaadanoniem.nl//ArticleSub.aspx?id=106〉.
83. For this intake, a standard questionnaire must be developed which includes questions on the existence of a voluntary basis for working in prostitution.
84. As stated above, the house rules developed by Erotikeur can be used as the starting point in this regard.
85. In some situations, this could mean that separate parking spaces for employees are provided.
86. This could mean, for instance, that it is not allowed to provide housing in the brothel or club and that there is no limitation to the prostitutes' freedom of movement.
87. Such a point system has to be designed and should be based on the system that exists in the Netherlands for renting a house or a room. Various aspects and facilities in a house or room represent a number of points and the total number of points determines the level of the rent.
88. Furthermore, in the elaboration of this indicator, the regulation on this matter in the model APV must be taken into account.
89. However, it must be recognised that it is almost impossible for businesses in this sector to take out an insurance. To meet this problem, covenants with insurance companies could be concluded.