Defining the problem of trafficking: The interplay of US Law, Donor, and NGO engagement and the local context in Latin America

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 119-145

  Guinn, David E ^a  

^a Judicial Ethics Education and Research   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

LOCAL PARTICIPATION; NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION; POLICY MAKING; SOCIAL POLICY; TRAFFICKING;

LATIN AMERICA;

EID: 39749143454     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2008.0008     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. H. WILSON HARRIS, HUMAN MERCHANDISE: A STUDY OF INTERNATIONAL TRAFFIC IN WOMEN 187 (1928).
2. Clare Ribando, Trafficking in Person in Latin America and the Caribbean, in CRS REPORT FOR CONGRESS 1, 4 (2005); INTERNATIONAL ORCANIZATION FOR MIGRATION (IOM), EXPLORATORY ASSESSMENT OF TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS IN THE CARIBBEAN REGION: THE BAHAMAS, BARBADOS, GUYANA, JAMIACA, THE NETHERLAND ANTILLES, ST. LUCIA, SURINAME 1 (2005), available at http://www.oas.org/atip/ Caribbean%20Research%202005.pdf.
3. See, e.g., Mohamed Y. Mattar, Trafficking in Persons: An Annotated Legal Bibliography, 96 LAW LIBR. J. 669 (2004).
4. Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 §102, 22 U.S.C. §7101 (2000) [hereinafter TVPA].
5. Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2003, Pub. L. No. 108-193, 108th Cong. (2003) [hereinafter TVPRA 2003].
6. Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-164, 109th Cong. (2005).
7. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, G.A. Res. 25, U.N. GAOR, 55th Sess., Annex II Supp. No. 49, at 60, U.N. Doc. A/45/49 (2001) (entered into force 9 Sept. 2003) [hereinafter UN Protocol].
8. TVPA, supra note 4, § 110(d)(1).
9. Guri Tyldum & Anette Brunovskis, Describing the Unobserved: Methodological Challenges in Empirical Studies on Human Trafficking, in DATA AND RESEARCH ON HUMAN TRAFFICKING: A GLOBAL SURVEY 17 (Frank Laczko & Elzbieta Gozdziak eds., 2005).
10. Some researchers believe these figures to be merely best "guesstimates." Elzbieta M. Gozdziak & Elizabeth A. Collett, Research on Human Trafficking in North America: A Review of the Literature, in DATA AND RESEARCH ON HUMAN TRAFFICKING, supra note 9, at 99, 108.
11. The international community has repeatedly condemned forced slavery, violence against women, and other trafficking elements, through declarations, treaties, resolutions, and United Nations reports, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted 10 Dec. 1948, G.A. Res. 217A (III), U.N. GAOR, 3rd Sess. (Resolutions, pt. 1), at 71, U.N. Doc. A/810 (1948), reprinted in 43 AM. J. INT'L L. 127 (Supp. 1949); Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development, and Peace, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted 17 May 1995, U.N. GAOR, 12th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20, reprinted in REPORT OF THE FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN (1995) (recommended to the UN General Assembly by the Committee on the Status of Women on 7 Oct. 1995); International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, U.N. Doc. A /6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171 (entered into force 23 Mar. 1976); Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, adopted 10 Dec. 1984, G.A. Res. 39/46, U.N. GAOR, 39th Sess., Supp. No. 51, U.N. Doc. A/39/51 (1985) (entered into force 26 June 1987), reprinted in 23 I.L.M. 1027 (1984), substantive changes noted in 24 I.L.M. 535 (1985); Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe: Document of the Moscow Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension, adopted 3 Oct. 1991, reprinted in 30 I.L.M. 1670 (1991); Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, Slave Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, adopted 7 Sept. 1956, Economic and Social Council, Res. 608 (XXI), (entered into force 30 Apr. 1957); American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man, signed 2 May 1948, OEA/Ser.L/V/II.71, at 17 (1988); ILO Convention No. 105 concerning the Abolition of Forced Labor (1957).
12. See Table 1.
13. UN Protocol, supra note 7, art. 3(a).
14. See IN MODERN BONDAGE: SEX TRAFFICKING IN THE AMERICAS (David E. Guinn & Elissa Steglich eds., 2003); STUDY ON TRAFFICKING IN WOMEN, CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS FOR COMMERCIAL SEXUAL EXPLOITATION IN BRAZIL (Maria Lucia Leal & Maria de Fatima Leal eds., 2003).
15. David A. Feingold, Human Trafficking, FOR. POL., Sept.-Oct. 2005, at 26, 28.
16. See U.S. Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report, available at http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/.
17. Children are not only protected under the terms of the Palermo Protocol, but also the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography, G.A. Res. S4/263, Annex II, 54 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 49) at 6, U.N. Doc. A/RES/54/49, Vol. III (2000), (entered into force 18 Jan. 2002.)
18. The situations in Jamaica, Nicaragua, and Uruguay are examples listed in the TIP Report. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE, 2005 TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS REPORT 7 (June 2005) [hereinafter 2005 TIP Report].
19. Examples of countries that report in this manner include: Brazil, Costa Rica, and the Dominican Republic. See, e.g., 2005 TIP Report, supra note 18, at 72, 87, 156.
20. See Ribando, supra note 2, at 5.
21. For example, Bolivia has trafficking for mining and Brazil has trafficking for agriculture. See, e.g., 2005 TIP Report supra note 18, at 68, 71.
22. Secretariat Report, Implementation of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2005) CTOC/COP/2005/3, 10 [hereinafter CTOC Report].
23. 2005 TIP Report supra note 18, at 85.
24. ZOILA GONZALEZ DE INNOCENTI, OFICINA INTERNACIONAL DEL TRABAJO, PROGRAMA INTERNACIONAL PARA LA ERRADICACIÓN DEL TRABAJO INFANTIL (OIT/IPEC), EXPLOTACIÓN SEXUAL COMERCIAL DE NIÑAS Y ADOLESCENTES: UNA EVALUACIÓN RÁPIDA (2002), available at http://www.oit.org.pe/ipec/documentos/ explotacion_sexual_comercial_de_ninas_y_adolescentes_paragua.pdf.
25. IN MODERN BONDAGE, supra note 14, at 65.
26. See Table 1.
27. See, e.g., Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, adopted 2 Dec. 1949, G.A. Res 317 (entered into force 25 July 1951), 96 U.N.T.S. 271; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, adopted 18 Dec. 1979, G.A. Res. 34/180, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Supp. No. 46, U.N. Doc. A/34/46 (1980) (entered into force 3 Sept. 1981), 1249 U.N.T.S. 13, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 33 (1980); Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against Women, "Convention of Belém do Pará," adopted 9 June 1994, OAS /Ser.L.V/II.92/doc.31 rev.3 (1994) (not in force), reprinted in 33 I.L.M. 1534 (1994).
28. See, e.g., Janice G. Raymond, Sex Trafficking is Not "Sex Work," CONSCIENCE (2005).
29. See Ribando, supra note 2, at 19.
30. See e.g., United States Leadership Against HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria Act of 2003 § 301, 22 U.S.C. § 7601 (2003); TVPRA 2003, supra note 5.
31. See 2005 TIP Report, supra note 18, at 7.
32. IN MODERN BONDAGE, supra note 14, at 59.
33. CTOC Report, supra note 22, at 11 37-38.
34. ILO, REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR GENERAL: A GLOBAL ALLIANCE AGAINST FORCED LABOR 15 (2005), available at i] http://www.ilo.org/public/ english/Standards/relm/ilc/ilc93/Pdf/rep-i-b.pdf.
35. Laura Langberg, A Review of Recent OAS Research on Human Trafficking in the Latin American and Caribbean Region, in DATA AND RESEARCH ON HUMAN TRAFFICKING, supra note 9, at 129, 130.
36. ILO, supra note 34, at 13-14.
37. CTOC Report, supra note 22, at ¶ ¶ 23, 37, 38.
38. See, e.g., MICHELE GOODWIN, BLACK MARKETS: THE SUPPLY AND DEMAND OF BODY PARTS (2006).
39. See Ribando, supra note 2, at 17.
40. See, e.g., HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, U.S. STATE DEPARTMENT TRAFFICKING REPORT UNDERCUT BY LACK OF ANALYSIS (June 2003), available at http://www.hrw.org/press/2003/06 /traffickingreport.htm; Frank Laczko & Marco A. Gramegna, Developing Better Indicators of Human Trafficking, 10 BROWN J. WORLD AFF. 179 (2003) at 179.
41. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography, G.A. Res. 54/263, U.N. GAOR, 54th Sess., Annex II, U.N. Doc. A/54/49 (2000) (entered into force 18 Jan. 2002).
42. IN MODERN BONDAGE, supra note 14, at 66.
43. Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons and the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, Seminar on Trafficking in Persons Research (14 Nov. 2005) [hereinafter TIP Research].
44. COMISIÓN DEONÓMICA PARA AMÉRICA LATINA Y EL CARIBE [CEPAL], STATISTICAL YEARBOOK FOR LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 2001, at 58 (2002).
45. IN MODERN BONDAGE, supra note 14, at 29-31; STUDY ON TRAFFICKING, supra note 14, at 54-59.
46. IN MODERN BONDACE, supra note 14, at 33.
47. Id. at 37-40.
48. Id. at 13-16 (discussing research methodology).
49. Ribando, supra note 2, at 1.
50. This latter assessment, however merely indicates the countries failure to comply with the United States requirements regarding efforts to combat trafficking where trafficking is identified as a problem. it does not rank the significance of the problem in terms of the numbers of victims or traffickers involved.
51. CTOP Report, supra note 22, at 9.
52. See, e.g., IOM, WORLD MIGRATION (2005); EXPLORATORY ASSESSMENT OF TRAFFICKING supra note 2.
53. Blas Nuñez-Neto, Alison Sisken & Stephen Viña, BORDER SECURITY: APPREHENSIONS OF "OTHER THAN MEXICAN" ALIENS (2005); Ribando, supra note 2, at 1.
54. U.S. DEPT. OF STATE, 2004 TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS REPORT 23 (June 2004), available at http://www.state.gov/documents/ organization/34158.pdf.
55. Ribando, supra note 2, at 6.
56. ILO, supra note 34, at 13-14.
57. U.S. DEPT. OF STATE, COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES 2004: DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (2005), available at http:// www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41758.htm.
58. U.S. DEPT. OF STATE, 2006 TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS REPORT (June 2006), available at http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/ 2006/65986.htm.
59. STUDY ON TRAFFICKING, supra note 14, at 66-72.
60. Id. at 69.
61. Id. at 69.
62. IN MODERN BONDAGE, supra note 14, at 37.
63. Id., at 33.
64. Id. at 40.
65. STUDY ON TRAFFICKING, supra note 14, at 73-94.
66. Id. at 73-79.
67. Id. at 110.
68. Id. at 95-110.
69. Id. at 107-08.
70. See Ribando, supra note 2, at 19.
71. See Feingold, supra note 15, at 30.
72. See The U.S. Government's International Anti-Trafficking Programs Fiscal Year 2004 (The Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons), (3 June 2005), available at http://www.state.gov/g/tip/ rls/rpt/51687.htm#westernhemisphere.
73. See United States Government Funds Obligated in Fiscal Year 2005 for Anti-Trafficking in Persons Projects (The Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons), available at http://www.state.gov/ g/tip/rls/fs/2006/63816/htm.
74. Confidential interviews with political affairs officers, Amman Jordan (2004); Rome, Italy (2004).
75. See Ribando, supra note 2, at 17.
76. IN MODERN BONDAGE, supra note 14, at 65.
77. TVPA, supra note 4, § 108(b)(1).
78. TVPRA 2003, supra note 5, § 6(d)(1).
79. See, e.g. HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 40; Laczko & Gramegna, supra note 40.
80. STUDY ON TRAFFICKING, supra note 14, at 35.
81. See Ribando, supra note 2, at 14.
82. Joan Fitzpatrick, Trafficking as a Human Rights Violation: The Complex Intersection of Legal Frameworks for Conceptualizing and Combating Trafficking, 24 MICH. J. INT'L L. 1143, 1165 (2003).
83. Ribando, supra note 2, at 19.
84. IN MODERN BONDAGE, supra note 14, at 74-75.
85. Feingold, supra note 15, at 30-31.