'Our people father, they haven't learned yet': Music and postcolonial identities in Zimbabwe, 1980-2000

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 145-160

  Chikowero, Moses ^a  

^a DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL IDENTITY; CULTURAL INFLUENCE; CULTURAL TRADITION; MUSIC; NATIONALISM;

AFRICA; SOUTHERN AFRICA; SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA; ZIMBABWE;

EID: 39749103387     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: 14653893     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057070701832932     Document Type: Article

References (108)

1. Brickz, quoted by John Mokwetsi, 'Listen to Own Music: Kwaito Star Urges Zimbabweans', www.thestandard.co.zw, 16 April 2006.
2. J. Zilberg, 'Yes, It's True, Zimbabweans Love Dolly Parton', Journal of Popular Culture, 29, 1 (1995).
3. A.J.C. Pongweni, The Songs that Won the Liberation War (Harare, College Press, 1982). These were the military wings of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) and the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), respectively, Zimbabwe's leading liberation movements.
4. Bob Marley, Survival (Polygram, 1979).
5. P. Scanell, Music, Radio and the Record Business in Zimbabwe Today (unpublished paper, University of Natal, 28 April 2000).
6. S. Chifunyise (Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture), interview, 4 July 2000, Harare.
7. D. Ndebele (Record Producer), interview, 16 July 2000, Harare.
8. D. Metcalfe, interview, 25 July 2000, Harare.
9. J. Moyo, interview, 4 October 2000, Harare; Gramma, 1981 and 1982.
10. Marshall Munhumumwe and the Four Brothers, Makorokoto (Vinyl, Gramma, 1980).
11. Thomas Mapfumo and the Blacks Unlimited, Singles Collection, 1976-80 (LP, Gramma, 1984).
12. S. Chinodya, A Harvest of Thorns (London, Heinemann, 1990).
13. D. Moyo, 'From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe: Change without Change? Broadcasting Policy Reform and Political Control', Media, Public Discourse and Political Contestation in Zimbabwe, H. Melber (ed.), African Current Affairs 27, (Uppsala, Nordiska Afrikainstitut, 2004), p. 17.
14. A. Nyamweda (Principal Cultural Officer, Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture), interview, 17 February 2007, Harare.
15. C. Timbe, 'The National Certificate of Music: A Pioneer Programme in Zimbabwe', in H. Lundstrom (ed.), The Musician in New and Changing Contexts (Lund, Lund University, 1998), p. 120.
16. C. Dube, 'The Changing Context of African Music Performance in Zimbabwe', Zambezia, xxiii, 11 (1996), p. 100
17. K. Mattaka, interview, 19 November 2006, Bulawayo.
18. See, for example, D. Coplan, In Township Tonight! South Africa's Black Music and Theatre (London, Longman, 1985).
19. F. Zindi, 'Thomas Mapfumo: A Cultural Ambassador?' SAPEM, December 1992-January 1993, p. 11.
20. Ministry of Youth, Sport and Culture, 'The Critical Situation in the Zimbabwe Music Industry' (unpublished paper, Harare, 1987), p. 3.
21. Ministry of Youth, Sport and Culture, 'The Critical Situation in the Zimbabwe Music Industry'.
22. M. Manyeruke, interview, 12 July 2000, Chitungwiza.
23. Metcalfe became band manager for Mtukudzi and Steve Dyer's groups.
24. Metcalfe, interview, 25 July 2000.
25. A.S. Mlambo, Economic Structural Adjustment Programme: The Case of Zimbabwe, 1990-1995 (Harare, University of Zimbabwe Publications, 1997), pp. 42-44.
26. D. Smith, 'Music Development in Retrospect: The Point of View of an End User', ZIMIA (n.d.), p. 59.
27. Friday Mbirimi (Former ZUM Chairman), interview, 22 November 2006, Harare.
28. A. Chipaika, interview, 30 September 2000, Harare.
29. E. Mujuru, interview, 18 July 2000, Harare
30. D. Masuku, quoted by M. Chitauro, C. Dube and L. Gunner, 'Song, Story and Nation: Women as Singers and Actresses in Zimbabwe', in L. Gunner (ed.), Politics and Performance: Theatre, Poetry and Song in Southern Africa (Johannesburg, Witwatersrand University Press, 1994), p. 126.
31. S. Wadharwa, 25 August 2000, Chitungwiza.
32. T. Kupe, 'The Meanings of Music: Media Representations of Popular Music in Zimbabwe', African Identities, 1, 2 (2003).
33. K.M. Askew, Performing the Nation: Swahili Music and Cultural Politics in Tanzania (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2002), p. 170.
34. See R. Martorella, 'Cultural Policy as Marketing Strategy: The Economic Consequences of Cultural Tourism', in D. Crane, N. Kawashima and K. Kawasaki (eds), Global Culture: Media, Arts, Policy, and Globalization (New York, Routledge, 2002), pp. 118-31.
35. See T. Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition in Colonial Africa', in T. Ranger and E. Hosbawm (eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983)
36. and see also his Dance and Society in Eastern Africa: The Beni Ngoma, 1890-1970 (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1975).
37. J. Lindsay, 'A Drama of Change: Cultural Policy and the Performing Arts in Southeast Asia', in D. Crane, N. Kawashima and K. Kawasaki (eds), Global Culture Media, Arts, Policy, and Globalization, p. 91.
38. T. Mbaya (NAC Music Officer), interview, 28 June 2000, Harare.
39. T. Hall, interview, 30 September 2000, Harare.
40. F. Zindi, Roots Rocking in Zimbabwe (Harare, Mambo Press, 1985), p. 58.
41. S.I.G. Mudenge, A Political History of the Munhumutapa c. 1400-1902 (Harare, Zimbabwe Publishing House, 1988), pp. 100-101.
42. M. Strumpf, 'Music Education in Malawi and Zimbabwe' (unpublished paper prepared for the African Arts Education Conference, Grahamstown, 26 June-1 July 2001)
43. R. Ziso, 'Music Education in Primary Schools in Post Independence Zimbabwe', in The Musician in New and Changing Contexts, p. 111.
44. ZIMRA, 'Music, Copyright and You!', (undated). Zimbabwe is a Berne Convention (1971) copyright legislation signatory, which, at this point, was viewed as ineffective in adequately safeguarding the interests of the country's artists.
45. Hardly unique to Zimbabwe, this exploitation only found public expression after independence. Preindependence musicians have always told me that they entered music fully aware that 'there is no money in music', singing only 'for the fame and love of music'.
46. Lovemore Majaivana, Isono Sami, CD, ZMC, 2001.
47. 'Family comes first for Majaivana', www.zimbabweherald.com, 3 September 2005.
48. 'Family comes first for Majaivana'.
49. R.S., interview, 3 August 2000.
50. B. Eyre, Playing with Fire: Fear and Self-Censorship in Zimbabwean Music, Freemuse (World Forum on Music and Censorship), Report 03/ 2001, p. 39.
51. Sungura is a typically fast, guitar-based beat that is closely identifiable with Congolese rhumba.
52. Eyre, Playing with Fire.
53. T. Mapfumo, quoted by T. Deve, 'Promoting Zimbawean Culture through Chimurenga Music', SAPEM, December-January (1993), p. 3.
54. M. Jambo, interview, 30 September 2000.
55. Mtukudzi, quoted in The Sunday Mail, 22 October 2000.
56. L. Majaivana, quoted by Guchu.
57. Majaivana, Isono Sami.
58. Leonard Dembo and the Barura Express, Chitekete, Gramma, LP L4 KSALP132 (1992).
59. T. Turino, Nationalists, Cosmopolitans, and Popular Music in Zimbabwe (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2001), p. 129.
60. S. Thuthuka, www.theindependent.co.zw, 27 April 2006.
61. T. Mupfurutsa, interview, 11 September 2000.
62. M. Mapaso, interview, 19 July 2000.
63. D. Gillespie with A. Fraser, To Be or Not to Bop: Memoirs (A Da Capo Paperback, 1985), pp. 359-60.
64. Bounty Killer, interview, www.muzikmedia.com, accessed 25 December 2005.
65. S. During, Cultural Studies: A Critical Introduction (New York, Routledge, 2005), p. 109.
66. B. Chindove, 'Music Promotion in the Radio Media', ZIMIA, p. 40.63
67. D. Gillespie, To Be, p. 359.
68. D. Moyo, 'From Rhodesia', p. 12.
69. Look and Listen, 1, An RBC Publication, Salisbury, March 12-18 March 1966.
70. M. Sibanda, Complete control: Music and propaganda in Zimbabwe, 30 September 2004, http://www.freemuse.org/sw7086.asp
71. Data provided by Sam Sibanda, interview, 11 September 2000.
72. Zilberg, 'Yes, it's True', p. 121.
73. L. Hatugari, Daily News, 10 March 2000.
74. Moyo, 'From Rhodesia', p. 17.
75. This is, ironically, President Mugabe's own scornful commentary on the 'shallow' social imagination in a lot of the country's music: Robert Mugabe, ZTV 1 interview, 21 February 1996.
76. D. Marechera, quoted by Zilberg, 'Yes, It's True', p. 112.
77. A. Manyangara, 'Gender in Zimbabwe's Electronic Broadcasting Media' (B.A. Hons. Thesis, University of Zimbabwe, May 2001).
78. M. Mlambo, interview, 25 August 2000.
79. S. Mlambo, interview, 25 August 2000.
80. W. Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Publishing House, 1972), p. 26.
81. Charlie, quoted in Turino, Nationalists, p. 152. Emphasis mine.
82. Ibid.
83. Zilberg uncritically quotes Chinodya who recalled his generation's childhood enthrallment with western music, declaring that traditional dances and music were 'dead before we knew them': Zilberg, 'Yes, it's True', p. 112.
84. J. Shasha, 'Local Music for the Home Market', ZIMIA, p. 44.
85. J. Nkomo, The Story of my Life (London, Methuen, 1983), p. 176.
86. Mujuru, interview.
87. A.M. Gwede, 'DJs must Play More Local Music', www.samara.co.zw/mirror/ index.cfm?id = 17&pubdate = 1999-04-08
88. D. Smith, 'Music Development in Retrospect', p. 58.
89. Gwede, 'DJs must Play more Local Music'.
90. H. Schiller, Culture, Inc.: The Corporate Take over of Public Expression (New York, Oxford University, 1989).
91. M. Sibanda, The Zimbabwe Independent, 12 June 1998.
92. See Crane, 'Culture and Globalization: Theoretical Models and Emerging Trends', in Crane et al., Global Culture.
93. For an analysis of television and film, see H. Arntsen and K. Lundby, 'The 'Electronic' Church in a Zimbabwean Communication Environment', in R. Granquist (ed), Culture in Africa, Seminar Proceedings 29, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala Sweden, Nordic Africa Institute, 1993), p. 46.
94. S. Sibanda, interview, 11 September 2000.
95. This brand of patriotism has now become too familiar as the ZANU-PF government's whip for anybody who dares criticise it.
96. Cde Chinx, himself a warfront musician, later formed a group by this name, and also worked for Radio 2.
97. Mapfumo, quoted by Thomas Deve, 'Promoting Zimbabwean Culture', p. 9.
98. C. Mushinga, 'Mashakada Speaks of his Muddy Face', Sunday Mail, 22 April 2006.
99. Up to 2000, ZBC still rejected its obligation to pay royalties and, in an argument that shows the interconnection between media/'cultural imperialism' and international capital, ZBC justified its predominantly western media content by arguing that it got them for free.
100. P. Chabal, Amilcar Cabral: Revolutionary Leadership and People's War (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 183.
101. Eyre, Playing with Fire, p. 34.
102. Notwithstanding grey zones, these dichotomies permeate wider society: rural versus urban; high vs. low density dwellers. At the University of Zimbabwe, the 'moderns' were dubbed 'nose brigades', and the 'traditionals' 'SRBs' - those with a 'strong rural background'.
103. P. Scannel, 'Music, Radio and the Record Business in Zimbabwe Today' Popular Music, 20, 1 (2001), p. 9.
104. Turino, Nationalists, p. 155.
105. Scannel, Music, Radio and Record Business, p. 9.
106. This evokes the neo-Marxian cultural vision championed by scholars like A. Maja-Pearce who, in their search for African development, advocate the abandonment of African indigenous language usage: 'In Search of Achebe's Dignity; or, The Cauliflower Episode', in Culture in Africa
107. M. Jaya, Sunday Mail, quoted by Zilberg, 'Yes, It's True', p. 114.
108. N. Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business (New York, Viking, 1985), p. 9.