Reexamining syphilis: An update on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and management

Annals of Pharmacotherapy

Volumn 42, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 226-236

  Kent, Molly E ^a   Romanelli, Frank ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b Pharmacy Practice and Science ^*

^c University of Kentucky   (United States)

Author keywords

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome; Human immunodeficiency virus; Syphilis

Indexed keywords

BENZATHINE PENICILLIN; PENICILLIN G; PROCAINE PENICILLIN;

CLINICAL FEATURE; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INCIDENCE; MEDLINE; MIXED INFECTION; NEUROSYPHILIS; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REAGIN TEST; REVIEW; SECONDARY SYPHILIS; SYPHILIS; TREPONEMA PALLIDUM; TREPONEMA PALLIDUM HEMAGGLUTINATION TEST; VENEREAL DISEASE REACTION TEST;

ANIMALS; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; FEMALE; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; MALE; PENICILLINS; SYPHILIS;

EID: 39049169759     PISSN: 10600280     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1345/aph.1K086     Document Type: Review

References (73)

1. Tramont EC. Treponema pallidum (syphilis). In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, ed. Principles and practice of infectious diseases. 6th ed. Orlando, FL: Churchill Livingstone, 2005:2768-84.
2. Singh AE, Romanowski B. Syphilis: review with emphasis on clinical, epidemiologic, and some biologic features. Clin Microbiol Rev 1999;12:187-209.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance 2004 supplement: syphilis surveillance report. Atlanta, GA: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005.
4. PHLS, DHSS, & PS, and the Scottish ISD(D)5 Colloborative Group. Sexually transmitted infection in the United Kingdom: new episodes seen at genitourinary medicine clinics, 1995 to 2000. London: Public Health Laboratory Service, 2001.
5. PHLS, DHSS, & PS, and the Scottish ISD(D)5 Colloborative Group. Sexually transmitted infection in the United Kingdom, new episodes seen at genitourinary medicine clinics, 1991-2001. London: Public Health Laboratory Service, 2002.
6. Drusin LM. Syphilis makes a comeback. Int J STD AIDS 1996;7:7-9.
7. Tichonova L, Borisenko K, Ward H, Meheus A, Gromyko A, Renton A. Epidemics of syphilis in the Russian Federation: trends, origins, and priorities for control. Lancet 1997;350:210-3.
8. Nakashima AK, Rolfs RT, Flock ML, Kilmarx P, Greenspan JR. Epidemiology of syphilis in the US, 1941-1993. Sex Transm Dis 1996;23:16-23.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Primary and secondary syphilis - US, 2000-2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002;51:971-3.
10. Ciesielski CA. Sexually transmitted disease in men who have sex with men: an epidemiologic review. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2003;5:145-52.
11. Van de Larr M. Resurgence of syphilis in Europe (abstract). In: Proceedings of the International Society of Sexually Transmitted Disease Research 15th Biennial Congress Ottawa: International Society of Sexually Transmitted Disease Research 2003:235-6.
12. Birley H, Duerden B, Hart CA, et al. Sexually transmitted diseases: microbiology and management. J Med Microbiol 2002;51:793-807.
13. Kinghorn GR. Infectious diseases. In: Cohen J, Powderly WG, eds. Syphilis. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 2004:807-16.
14. Fraser CM, Norris SJ, Weinstock GM, et al. Complete genome sequence of Treponema pallidum, the syphilis spirochete. Science 1998;281:375-88.
15. Cox DL, Chang P, McDowall AW, Radolf JD. The outer membrane, not a coat of host proteins, limits antigenicity of virulent Treponema pallidum. Infect Immun 1992;60:1076-83.
16. Radolf JD, Norgard MV, Schulz WW. Outer membrane ultrastructure explains the limited antigenicity of virulent Treponema pallidum. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1989;86:2051-5.
17. Walker EM, Borenstein LA, Blanco DR, Miller JN, Lovett MA. Analysis of outer membrane ultrastructure of pathogenic Treponema and Borrelia species by freeze-fracture electron microscopy. J Bacteriol 1991;173:5585-8.
18. Pike RM. Laboratory-associated infections: summary and analysis of 3921 cases. Health Lab Sci 1976;13:105-14.
19. Fiumara NJ. Syphilis in newborn children. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1975;18:183-9.
20. Infectious disease testing for blood transfusions. NIH Consensus Development Panel on Infectious Disease Testing for Blood Transfusions. JAMA 1995;274:1374-9.
21. Hwang LY, Ross MW, Zack C, Bull L, Rickman K, Holleman M. Prevalence of sexually transmitted infections and associated risk factors among populations of drug abusers. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:920-6.
22. Golden MR, Marra CM, Holmes KK. Update on syphilis: resurgence of an old problem. JAMA 2003;290:1510-4.
23. Zeltser R, Kurban AK. Syphilis. Clin Dermatol 2004;22:461-8.
24. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2006;55(No. RR-11):1-96.
25. Jackman JD Jr, Radolf JD. Cardiovascular syphilis. Am J Med 1989;87:425-33.
26. Kampmeier RH. The late manifestations of syphilis: skeletal, visceral and cardiovascular. Med Clin North Am 1964;48:667-97.
27. Simon RP. Neurosyphilis. Arch Neurol 1985;42:606-13.
28. Clark EG, Danbolt N. The Oslo study of the natural history of untreated syphilis; an epidemiologic investigation based on a restudy of the Boeck-Bruusgaard material; a review and appraisal. J Chronic Dis 1955;2:311-44.
29. Clark EG, Danbolt N. The Oslo Study of the natural course of untreated syphilis. An epidemiologic investigation based on re-study of the Boeck-Bruusgaard material. Med Clin North Am 1964;48:613-23.
30. Peters JJ, Peers JH, Olansky S, Cutler JC, Gleeson GAG. Untreated syphilis in the male Negro. Pathologic findings in syphilitic and non-syphilitic patients. J Chronic Dis 1955;1:127-48.
31. Rockwell DH, Yobs AR, Moore MB Jr. The Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis; the 30th year of observation. Arch Intern Med 1964;114:792-8.
32. Rosahn PD. Autopsy studies in syphilis. J Vener Dis Inform 1947;28(suppl 21):1-67.
33. Vondelehr RA, Clark T. Untreated syphilis in the male Negro. A comparative study of treated and untreated cases. Vener Dis Infect 1936;17:260-5.
34. Chapel TA. The variability of syphilitic chancres. Sex Transm Dis 1978;5:68-70.
35. DiCarlo RP, Martin DH. The clinical diagnosis of genital ulcer disease in men. Clin Infect Dis 1997;25:292-8.
36. Mindel A, Tovey SJ, Timmins DJ, Williams P. Primary and secondary syphilis, 20 years' experience. 2. Clinical features. Genitourin Med 1989;65:1-3.
37. Sell S, Hsu PL. Delayed hypersensitivity, immune deviation, antigen processing and T-cell subset selection in syphilis pathogenesis and vaccine design. Immunol Today 1993;14:576-82.
38. Klein JR, Monjan AA. Delayed-type hypersensitivity response in mice to Treponema pallidum. Immunol Commun 1983;12:25-30.
39. Chapel TA. The signs and symptoms of secondary syphilis. Sex Transm Dis 1980;7:161-4.
40. Rompalo AM, Joesoef MR, O'Donnell JA, et al. Clinical manifestations of early syphilis by HIV status and gender: results of the syphilis and HIV study. Sex Transm Dis 2001;28:158-65.
41. Hutchinson CM, Hook EW 3rd, Shepherd M, Verley J, Rompalo AM. Altered clinical presentation of early syphilis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Ann Intern Med 1994;121:94-100.
42. Merritt HH. The early clinical and laboratory manifestations of syphilis of the central nervous system. N Engl J Med 1940;223:446-50.
43. Merritt HH, Moore M. Acute syphilitic meningitis. Medicine 1935;14:119-83.
44. Pao D, Goh BT, Bingham JS. Management issues in syphilis. Drugs 2002;62:1447-61.
45. Hart G. Syphilis tests in diagnostic and therapeutic decision making. Ann Intern Med 1986;104:368-76.
46. Hook EW 3rd, Marra CM. Acquired syphilis in adults. N Engl J Med 1992;326:1060-9.
47. Larsen SA, Steiner BM, Rudolph AH. Laboratory diagnosis and interpretation of tests for syphilis. Clin Microbiol Rev 1995;8:1-21.
48. Marra CM, Critchlow CW, Hook EW 3rd, Collier AC, Lukehart SA. Cerebrospinal fluid treponemal antibodies in untreated early syphilis. Arch Neurol 1995;52:68-72.
49. Marra CM, Maxwell CL, Smith SL, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid abnormalities in patients with syphilis: association with clinical and laboratory features. J Infect Dis 2004;189:369-76.
50. Sparling PF. Diagnosis and treatment of syphilis. N Engl J Med 1971;284:642-53.
51. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Inadvertent use of Bicillin C-R to treat syphilis infection - Los Angeles, California, 1999-2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005;54:217-9.
52. Smith NH, Musher DM, Huang DB, et al. Response of HIV-infected patients with asymptomatic syphilis to intensive intramuscular therapy with ceftriaxone or procaine penicillin. Int J STD AIDS 2004;15:328-32.
53. Marra CM, Boutin P, McArthur JC, et al. A pilot study evaluating ceftriaxone and penicillin G as treatment agents for neurosyphilis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals. Clin Infect Dis 2000;30:540-4.
54. Schofer H, Vogt HJ, Milbradt R. Ceftriaxone for the treatment of primary and secondary syphilis. Chemotherapy 1989;35:140-5.
55. Smith CA, Kamp M, Olansky S, Price EV. Benzathine penicillin G in the treatment of syphilis. Bull World Health Organ 1956;15:1087-96.
56. Romansky MJ, Olansky S, Taggart SR, Landman GS, Robin ED. Chloromycetin (chloramphenicol) in the treatment of various types of syphilis; a preliminary follow-up. Am J Syph Gonorrhea Vener Dis 1951;35:234-9.
57. Romanowski B, Starreveld E, Jarema AJ. Treatment of neurosyphilis with chloramphenicol. A case report. Br J Vener Dis 1983;59:225-7.
58. Yim CW, Flynn NM, Fitzgerald FT. Penetration of oral doxycycline into the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with latent or neurosyphilis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1985;28:347-8.
59. Arroliga ME, Pien L. Penicillin allergy: consider trying penicillin again. Cleve Clin J Med 2003;70:313-26.
60. Borish L, Tamir R, Rosenwasser LJ. Intravenous desensitization to beta-lactam antibiotics. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1987;80:314-9
61. Sullivan TJ, Yecies LD, Shatz GS, Parker GS, Wedner HJ. Desensitization of patients allergic to penicillin using orally administered beta-lactam antibiotics. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1982;69:275-82.
62. Wendel GD, Stark BJ, Jamison RB, Molina RD, Sullivan TJ. Penicillin allergy and desensitization in serious infections during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1985;312:1229-32.
63. Zellan J, Augenbraun M. Syphilis in the HIV-infected patient: an update on epidemiology, diagnosis and management. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2004;1:142-7.
64. Buchacz K, Greenberg A, Onorato I, Janssen R. Syphilis epidemics and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) incidence among men who have sex with men in the United States: implications for HIV prevention. Sex Transm Dis 2005;32(suppl):S73-9.
65. Douglas JM, Peterman TA, Fenton KA. Syphilis among men who have sex with men: challenges to syphilis elimination in the United States. Sex Transm Dis 2005;32(suppl):S80-3.
66. Fenton KA, Imrie J. Increasing rates of sexually transmitted diseases in homosexual men in Western Europe and the United States: why? Infect Dis Clin North Am 2005;19:311-31.
67. Division of Sexually Transmitted Disease Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance report. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2001.
68. Buchacz K, Patel P, Taylor M, et al. Syphilis increases HIV viral load and decreases CD4 cell counts in HIV-infected patients with new syphilis infections. AIDS 2004;18:2075-9.
69. Rolfs R, Jossoef R, Hendershot E, et al. A randomized trial of enhanced therapy for early syphilis in patients with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1997;337:307-14.
70. Gourevitch M, Selwyn P, Davenny D, et al. Effects of HIV infection on the serologic manifestation and response to treatment of syphilis in intravenous drug users. Ann Intern Med 1993;118:1124-6.
71. John D, Tieney M, Feisenstein D. Alteration in the natural history of neurosyphilis by concurrent infection with the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med 1987;316:1569-72.
72. Berry C, Hooten T, Collier A, Lukehart SA. Neurologic relapse after benzathine penicillin therapy for secondary syphilis in a patient with HIV infection. N Engl J Med 1987;316:1569-74.
73. Walter T, Lebouche B, Miailhes P, et al. Symptomatic relapse of neurologic syphilis after benzathine penicillin G therapy for primary or secondary syphilis in HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis 2006;43:787-90.