Civil Wars in the Soviet Union

Kritika

Volumn 4, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 129-162

  Rieber, Alfred J ^a  

^a CENTRAL EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY   (Hungary)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 38949182686     PISSN: 1531023X     EISSN: 15385000     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/kri.2003.0012     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. and Walter Laqueur, Guerilla: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1977), chap. 5
2. The military value of the resistance has been virtually dismissed by John Keegan, The Second World War (New York: Penguin, 1990), 483-96
3. Since then further revisions have been introduced by Jan T. Gross, Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988)
4. and Jacques Semelin, Unarmed Against Hitler: Civilian Resistance in Europe, 1939-1943 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1993)
5. Russian historians have retained the strict definition of collaboration while acknowledging complex motivations. See, for example, Mikhail Ivanovich Semiriaga, Kollaboratsionizm: Priroda, tipologiia i proiavleniia v gody Vtoroi Mirovoi Voiny (Moscow: Rosspen, 2000)
6. and Dov Levin, Fighting Back: Lithuanian Jewry's Armed Resistance to the Nazis, 1941-1944, trans. Moshe Kohn and Dina Cohen (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1985)
7. Saul Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews: The Years of Persecution (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1997)
8. Woodruff D. Smith, The Ideological Origins of Nazi Imperialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986)
9. Martin Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 1939-1945 (Stuttgart: Deutsche, 1961)
10. Robert L. Koehl, RKFDV: German Resettlement and Population Policy, 1939-1945. A History of the Reich Commission for the Strengthening of Germandom (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957)
11. See also Christian Streit, Keine Kameraden: Die Wehrmacht und die Sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen, 1941-1945 (Stuttgart: Deutsche, 1978)
12. Horst Boog, et al., Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, vol. 4, Der Angriff auf die Sowjetunion (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1983)
13. and Eberhard Jäckel, Hitlers Herrschaft: Vollzug einer Weltanschauung (Stuttgart: Deutsche, 1986)
14. Karl Lange, "Der Terminus 'Lebensraum' in Hitlers Mein Kampf," Vierteljahrschaft für Zeitgeschichte 13 (1965), 426-37
15. Norman Rich, Hitler's War Aims (New York: Norton, 1973-74), 2: 326-32
16. Götz Aly, "Final Solution": Nazi Population Policy and the Murder of the European Jews, trans. Belinda Cooper and Allison Brown (London: Oxford University Press, 1999), 254, argues for a March 1941 date for when the decision to deport European Jews to the East was taken
17. The two classic interpretations of the relationship between Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union and his extermination of the Jews emphasize the preeminence of one or the other of these initiatives at the expense of the other. For the view that Judeophobia inspired Hitler's attack, see Lucy Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews, 1933-1945 (New York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, 1975)
18. the thesis that the main purpose behind Hitler's war in the East was the destruction of Bolshevism is in Arno Mayer, Why Did the Heavens Not Darken? The Final Solution in History (New York: Pantheon, 1988)
19. Omer Bartov, The Eastern Front, 1941-45: German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (New York: St. Martin's, 1986)
20. and idem, Hitler's Army: Soldiers, Nazis and War in the Third Reich (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991)
21. But compare Truman Anderson, "Incident at Baranivka: German Reprisals and the Soviet Partisan Movement in Ukraine, October-December 1941," Journal of Modern History 71: 3 (September 1999), 585-623, who cites Wehrmacht orders that "the Ukrainian population which sympathizes with the Germans is to be exempted from collective punishment."
22. See also Timothy Mulligan, The Politics of Illusion and Empire: German Occupation Policy in the Soviet Union, 1942-1943 (New York: Praeger, 1988)
23. and Theo Schulte, The German Army and Nazi Policies in Occupied Russia (Oxford: Berg, 1989)
24. In his conversations with Anthony Eden in December 1942 Stalin stated: "I think that the whole war between us and Germany began because of these western frontiers of the USSR, including particularly the Baltic States. That is really what the whole war is about and what I would like to know is whether our ally, Great Britain, supports us regarding these western frontiers." Cited in Anglo-American Perspectives on the Ukrainian Question, 1938-1951: A Documentary Collection, ed. Lubomyr Y. Luciuk and Bohdan S. Kordan (Kingston, ON: Limestone, 1987), 53
25. For similar but more ambitious goals during World War I, see Russian Diplomacy and Eastern Europe, 1914-1917 (New York: King's Crown, 1963)
26. Valentina Sergeevna Parsadanova, "Deportatsii naseleniia iz Zapadnoi Ukrainy i Zapadnoi Belorussii v 1939-1941 gg.," Novaia i noveishaia istoriia, no. 2 (1989), 46-63
27. Natal'ia Sergeevna Lebedeva, "The Deportation of the Polish Population to the USSR, 1939-1941," in Forced Migration in Central and Eastern Europe, 1939-1950, ed. Rieber (London: Frank Cass, 2000), 28-45
28. Gross, Revolution from Abroad, chap. 1
29. Lebedeva, "Katyn'": Prestuplenie protiv chelovechestva (Moscow: Progress, 1994)
30. Artem Markovich Lazarev, God 1940: Prodolzhenie sotsialisticheskoi revoliutsii v Bessarabii (Kishinev: Shtiintsa, 1985), 82-83
31. "Pod maskoi nezavisimosti (dokumenty o vooruzhennom natsionalisticheskom podpol'e v Latvii v 40-50-kh gg.)," Izvestiia TsK KPSS, no. 11 (1990), 115
32. Emilia Hrabovic, "The Catholic Church and Deportations of Ethnic Germans from the Czech Lands," 64-82
33. G. P. Murashko, "The Fate of Hungarian Minorities in Slovakia after the Second World War: Resettlement and Re-Slovakization, Moscow's Position," 83-95
34. and A. S. Noskova, "Migration of the Germans after the Second World War: Political and Psychological Aspects," 96-114
35. and Philip Ther, "A Century of Forced Migration: The Origins and Consequences of 'Ethnic Cleansing,'" in Redrawing Nations: Ethnic Cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944-1948, ed. Ther and Ana Siljak (Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001), 43-74
36. and Chester S. L. Dunning, Russia's First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty (University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 2001)
37. The best survey of Cossack rebellions remains Paul Avrich, Russian Rebels, 1600-1800 (New York: Norton, 1976)
38. See Frank Evhen Sysyn, "The Khmelnytsky Uprising and Ukrainian Nation-Building," Journal of Ukrainian Studies 17: 1-2 (Summer-Winter 1992), 141-69
39. Zenon E. Kohut, "Myths Old and New: The Haidamak Movement and the Koliivshchyna (1768) in Recent Historiography," Harvard Ukrainian Studies 1: 3 (1977), 359-78
40. Peter Holquist, "'Conduct Merciless, Mass Terror': Decossackization on the Don, 1919," Cahiers du monde russe 38: 1-2 (1997), 127-62
41. Frank Sysyn reviews the most recent avatar of the tradition in "The Reemergence of the Ukrainian Nation and Cossack Mythology," Social Research 58: 4 (1991), 845-65
42. For suggestive insights, see also John A. Armstrong, "Myth and History in the Evolution of Ukrainian Consciousness," in Ukraine and Russia in Their Historical Encounter, ed. Peter J. Potichnyj et al. (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1992), 125-39
43. For insights into this tradition see Jan Ciechanowski, The Warsaw Rising of 1944 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), chap. 2
44. Edward Thaden, ed., Russification in the Baltic Provinces and Finland, 1855-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), 34, 56, 213-15, 259-67
45. Viktor Il'ich Zhukov, Istoricheskoe znachenie prisoedineniia Bessarabii k levoberezhnogo Poddnestrov'ia k Rossii (Kishenev: Shtiintsa, 1997), 37
46. Alan Fischer, "Emigration of Muslims from the Russian Empire in the Years after the Crimean War," Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 35: 3 (1987), 356- 71
47. Moshe Gammer, Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnia and Daghestan (London: Frank Cass, 1994), especially chap. 25
48. A. I. Ivanov, "Natsional'no-osvoboditel'noe dvizhenie v Chechne i Daghestane v 60-70kh gg. XIX v," Istoricheskie zapiski, no. 12 (1941), 163-99
49. Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov, "The Chechens and Ingush during the Soviet Period and Its Antecedents," in The North Caucasus Barrier: The Russian Advance toward the Muslim World, ed. Marie Bennigsen Broxup (New York: St. Martin's, 1992), 154-87
50. Abraham Ascher, The Revolution of 1905, vol. 1, Russia in Disarray (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), 152
51. For specialized accounts, see Toivo U. Raun, "The Revolution of 1905 in the Baltic Provinces and Finland," Slavic Review 43: 3 (1984), 453-67
52. Marian Kamil Dziewanowski, "The Polish Revolutionary Movement and Russia, 1904-1907," in Russian Thought and Politics, ed. Hugh McLean et al. (The Hague: Mouton, 1957), 375-94
53. Charters Wynn, Workers, Strikes and Pogroms: The Donbas-Dnepr Bend in late Imperial Russia, 1870-1905 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 211-26
54. Robert Weinberg, The Revolution of 1905 in Odessa: Blood on the Steps (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1993), esp. chap. 3 on the pogrom
55. S. F. Jones, "Marxism and Peasant Revolt in the Russian Empire: The Case of the Gurian Republic," Slavonic and East European Review 67: 3 (July 1989), 403-34. A general study of civil wars in the borderlands in 1905 is still needed
56. The standard work remains Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997)
57. Also the older work of John Reshetar, The Ukrainian Revolution, 1917-1920: A Study in Nationalism (New York: Arno, 1972), orig. published 1952, has not been superseded
58. and Hiroaki Kuromiya, Freedom and Terror in the Donbas: A Ukrainian-Russian Borderland, 1870s-1990s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 94-99
59. Rieber, "Stalin: Man of the Borderlands," American Historical Review 106: 5 (December 2001), 1651-91
60. Robert C. Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879-1929 (New York: Norton, 1973), 178-79
61. Robert M. Slusser, Stalin in October: The Man Who Missed the Revolution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987)
62. Moshe Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power: A Study of Collectivization (New York: Norton, 1975), 482 ff. was the first to point this out
63. The theme has been further developed by Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village after Collectivization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994)
64. See also Andrea Graziosi, The Great Soviet Peasant War: Bolsheviks and Peasants, 1917-1933 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996), 20, 27, 54, 63, 67, where the author makes the most explicit case of all for collectivization as being act two of a prolonged Russian civil war. While focusing on the peasantry as a class, Graziosi nevertheless make it clear that the violence was most widespread and intense in the national regions
65. John A. Armstrong, Soviet Partisans in World War II (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), 22-26, proposes a different set of three phases for the partisan movement, but also attributes his periodization to the military situation and German occupation policies
66. and A. S. Chaikovs'kyi, Nevidoma viina: Partizans'kii rukh Ukraïni 1941-1944 rr., movoiu dokumentiv, ochyma istoryka (Kyiv: "Ukraina," 1994) 16-25, 173-75
67. See, for example, "Polozhenie v raione g. El'nia: Iz pis'ma chlenov Shtaba oborony g. El'nia, Smolenskoi oblasti v Politbiuro TsK VKP(b)," Izvestiia TsK KPSS, no. 7 (1990), 94-95
68. I. I. Petrov, "Iz istorii partiinogo rukovodstva pogranichnymi voiskami (1941-1945 gg.)," Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 1 (January 1985), 36
69. K. Tazva, "Poet-borets," in Ob estonskoi literature: Sbornik literaturno-kriticheskikh stat'ei (Tallin: Estonskoe gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo, 1956)
70. "Za pravil'noe osveshchenie istorii kompartii Latvii," Kommunist, no. 12 (1964), 67-68
71. G. Zuimach, Latvishskie revoliutsionnye deiateli (Riga: Latviiskoe gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo, 1958), 87-93
72. Ocherki istorii kommunisticheskoi partii Latvii (Riga: Latviiskoe gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo, 1966), 3: 369-74, 378
73. Algirdas Martin Budreckis, The Lithuanian National Revolt of 1941 (Boston: Lithuanian Encyclopedia Press, 1968)
74. Vytas Stanley Vardys, Lithuania under the Soviets: Portrait of a Nation, 1940-1965 (New York: Praeger, 1965), 69-71, 74-76
75. Martin Dean, Collaboration in the Holocaust: Crimes of the Local Police in Belorussia and Ukraine, 1941-44 (London: Macmillan, 2000), 43-45, 62-63
76. Levin, Fighting Back, 95
77. Pogranichnye voiska, 565-67
78. "Pod maskoi nezavisimosti," 116-17
79. "Podpol'e v Estonii," 168-71, based on NKVD archival sources but without specific references
80. Bor'ba za sovetskuiu pribaltiku, 2: 239-47
81. Mart Laar, War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944-1956 (Washington, DC: Compass, 1992), 12-14. The author was subsequently prime minister of independent Estonia
82. Seppo Myllyniemi, Die Neuordnung der Baltischen Länder, 1941-1944: Zum nationalsozialistischen Besatzungspolitik (Helsinki: Suomen Historiallinen Seura, 1973)
83. Raun, Estonia and the Estonians (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987), 158-59
84. According to German field reports the local population greeted the invaders with bread and salt, but the local Communist Party representatives praised the Belorussian peasantry's high level of patriotism. For the German reports, see Nicholas Vakar, Belorussia: The Making of a Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956), chap. 13
85. John Loftus, The Belarus Secret: The Nazi Connection in America (New York: Paragon House, 1989)
86. The Standard survey continues to be John A. Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, 3rd ed. (Englewood, CO: Ukrainian Academic Press, 1990)
87. But see also Orest Subtelny, Ukraine: A History, 2nd ed. (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1994), especially chap. 23
88. "OUN na sluzhbe fashizma," Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, no. 5 (1991), 16
89. Volodymyr Kosyk, Ukraïna i nimechchyna u Druhii svitovii viini (Lviv: Ivan Franko University, 1993), 122-23, 177
90. Oleksandr Vovk, "Do pitannia postannia UPA pid provodom OUNSD," Ukraïns'kyi istoryk, no. 30 (1995), 138, 141
91. Chaikovs'kyi, Nevidoma viina, 222-23. I am grateful to Yaroslav Hrytsak for providing me with these sources
92. Peter J. Potichnyj, "Ukrainians in World War II: Military Formations. An Overview," in Ukraine during World War II: History and Its Aftermath. A Symposium, ed. Yury Boshyk (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1986), 62
93. Wolfdieter Bihl, "Ukrainians in the Armed Forces of the Reich: The 14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS," in German-Ukrainian Regions in Historical Perspective, ed. Hans-Joachim Torke and John-Paul Himka (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1994), 141
94. Shmuel Spector, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews, 1941-1944 (Jerusalem: Achva Press, 1990), 271
95. From the large often polemical literature, in addition to Friedman, Roads
96. and Spector, Holocaust
97. see, for example, Peter J. Potichnyj and Howard Aster, eds., Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Historical Perspective (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1990)
98. For a more balanced picture, see Amir Weiner, Making Sense of War: The Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 258-70, although the argument that few Jews also survived in Greece and France fails to take into account the ease with which the Germans could round up the highly concentrated urban Jewish population of these countries
99. Samuel J. Newland, Cossacks in the German Army, 1941-1945 (London: Frank Cass, 1991), 86
100. Iurii Stanislavovich Tsurganov, Neudavshiisia revansh: Belaia emigratsiia vo Vtoroi Mirovoi Voine (Moscow: Intrada, 2001), 124-26
101. "Krymsko-Tatarskie formirovaniia: Dokumenty tret'ego reikha svidetel'svuiut," Voennoistoricheskii zhurnal, no. 3 (1991), 9
102. Edige Mustafa Kirimal
103. Edige Mustafa Kirimal, Der Nationale Kampf der Krimtürken mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Jahre 1917-1918 (Emsdetten: Lechte, 1952), 305
104. Bugai, L. Beriia - I. Stalinu, 146-48
105. Vakar, Belorussia, 195-96
106. Dean, Collaboration, 142-44
107. Porter, Jewish Partisans, 8-9, 11-12, 19
108. Dallin, "The Kaminsky Brigade: A Case Study of Soviet Disaffection," in Revolution and Politics in Russia: Essays in Memory of B. L. Nikolaevsky, ed. Alexander and Janet Rabinowitch (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1972), 243-80
109. Witalij Wilenchik, Die Partisanbewegung in Weisrussland, 1941-1944 (Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz, 1984)
110. Jerzy Turonek, Belarus' pad niametskai akupatsyiai (Minsk: Belarus, 1993), 98, 117, 176
111. and I. G. Starinov, "Podryvniki na kommunikatsiiakh agressora," Voprosy istorii, no. 7 (1988), 100-12, which are the important memoirs of a participant
112. Leonid D. Grenkevich, The Soviet Partisan Movement, 1941-1944: A Critical Historiographical Analysis (London: Frank Cass, 1999), 6-7, 84-86, 91-95
113. Vsevolod Ivanovich Klochkov, Deistviia partizan Ukrainy na zheleznodorozhnykh kommunikatsiiakh v tylu fashistskikh voisk, 1941-1944 (Kyiv: Nauka, 1984)
114. Panteleimon Kondratevich Ponomarenko, Vsenarodnaia bor'ba v tylu nemetsko-fashistskikh zakhvatchikov, 1941-1944 (Moscow: Nauka, 1986), 420-23 contains the full text
115. "Stehle, "Sheptyts'kyi," 134-38
116. Timothy Snyder, "'To Resolve the Ukrainian Problem Once and For All': The Ethnic Cleansing of Ukrainians in Poland, 1943-1947," Journal of Cold War Studies 1: 2 (2000), 86-120 provides the comprehensive account
117. Jaroslav Pelenski, "The Haidamak Insurrections and the Old Regimes in Eastern Europe," in The American and European Revolutions, 1776-1848: Socio-Political and Ideological Aspects, ed. Pelenski (Iowa City: Iowa University Press, 1980)
118. and Kohut, "Myths Old and New."
119. Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii f. 9401, op. 2, d. 64, ll. 162-67
120. Alexander Dallin and Ralph S. Mavrogordato, "The Soviet Reaction to Vlasov," World Politics 8: 3 (April 1956), 307-22
121. Armstrong, Soviet Partisans, 243-48
122. Armstrong, Soviet Partisans, 312-17, 330
123. Semiriaga, 485-529
124. Kuromiya, 259-95
125. But compare Weiner, 305
126. Boris Meissner, Die Baltischen Nationen: Estland, Lettland Litauen (Cologne: Mockus, 1991), 232-45
127. Galina Georgievna Morekhina, Partiinoe stroitel'stvo v period Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voiny Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1941-1945 gg. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1986), 121-23, 133
128. Bugai, L. Beriia - I. Stalinu, 149-53, 159
129. Bugai, Kavkaz, 211-17