The Encephalopathy in Sepsis

Critical Care Clinics

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 67-82

  Siami, Shidasp ^a   Annane, Djillali ^a   Sharshar, Tarek ^a  

^a LABORATOIRE DES SCIENCES DU CLIMAT ET DE L ENVIRONNEMENT   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACTIVATED PROTEIN C; AMYLOID P COMPONENT;

APOPTOSIS; BRAIN DISEASE; CELL DEATH; DELIRIUM; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEPSIS;

APOPTOSIS; BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER; BRAIN DISEASES; DELIRIUM; HUMANS; NERVE GROWTH FACTORS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; S100 PROTEINS; SEPSIS;

EID: 38849195673     PISSN: 07490704     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ccc.2007.10.001     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Stevens R.D., and Pronovost P.J. The spectrum of encephalopathy in critical illness. Semin Neurol 26 4 (2006) 440-451
2. Young G.B., Bolton C.F., Austin T.W., et al. The encephalopathy associated with septic illness. Clin Invest Med 13 6 (1990) 297-304
3. Sprung C.L., Peduzzi P.N., Shatney C.H., et al. Impact of encephalopathy on mortality of sepsis. Crit Care Med 18 (1990) 801-806
4. Eidelman L.A., Putterman D., Putterman C., et al. The spectrum of septic encephalopathy: definitions, etiologies, and mortalities. JAMA 275 6 (1996) 470-473
5. Straver J.S., Keunen R.W., Stam C.J., et al. Nonlinear analysis of EEG in septic encephalopathy. Neurol Res 20 2 (1998) 100-106
6. Young G.B., Bolton C.F., Archibald Y.M., et al. The electroencephalogram in sepsis-associated encephalopathy. J Clin Neurophysiol 9 1 (1992) 145-152
7. Zauner C., Gendo A., Kramer L., et al. Metabolic encephalopathy in critically ill patients suffering from septic or nonseptic multiple organ failure. Crit Care Med 28 5 (2000) 1310-1315
8. Zauner C., Gendo A., Kramer L., et al. Impaired subcortical and cortical sensory evoked potential pathways in septic patients. Crit Care Med 30 (2002) 1136-1139
9. Nguyen D.N., Spapen H., Su F., et al. Elevated serum levels of S-100beta protein and neuron-specific enolase are associated with brain injury in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med 34 7 (2006) 1967-1974
10. Ely E.W., Inouye S.K., Bernard G.R., et al. Delirium in mechanically ventilated patients: validity and reliability of the Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU). JAMA 286 (2001) 2703-2710
11. Hart R.P., Levenson J.L., Sessler C.N., et al. Validation of a cognitive test for delirium in medical ICU patients. Psychosomatics 37 6 (1996) 533-546
12. Bergeron N., Dubois M.J., Dumont M., et al. Intensive care delirium screening checklist: evaluation of a new screening tool. Intensive Care Med 27 5 (2001) 859-864
13. Stevens R.D., and Nyquist P.A. Coma, delirium, and cognitive dysfunction in critical illness. [abstract x]. Crit Care Clin 22 4 (2006) 787-804
14. Tracey K.J. The inflammatory reflex. Nature 420 6917 (2002) 853-859
15. Borovikova L.V., Ivanova S., Zhang M., et al. Vagus nerve stimulation attenuates the systemic inflammatory response to endotoxin. Nature 405 6785 (2000) 458-462
16. Valentino R.J., Foote S.L., and Page M.E. The locus caeruleus as a site for integrating corticotropin-releasing factor and noradrenergic mediation of stress responses. Ann NY Acad Sci 697 (1993) 173-188
17. Valentino R.J., Page M.E., and Curtis A.L. Activation of noradrenergic locus caeruleus neurons by hemodynamic stress is due to local release of corticotropin-releasing factor. Brain Res 555 1 (1991) 25-34
18. Curtis A.L., Bello N.T., Connolly K.R., et al. Corticotropin-releasing factor neurons of the central nucleus of the amygdala mediate locus caeruleus activation by cardiovascular stress. J Neuroendocrinol 14 8 (2002) 667-682
19. Berridge C.W., and Waterhouse B.D. The locus caeruleus-noradrenergic system: modulation of behavioral state and state-dependent cognitive processes. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 42 1 (2003) 33-84
20. Sako K., Okuma Y., Hosoi T., et al. STAT3 activation and c-FOS expression in the brain following peripheral administration of bacterial DNA. J Neuroimmunol 158 1-2 (2005) 40-49
21. Laflamme N., and Rivest S. Toll-like receptor 4: the missing link of the cerebral innate immune response triggered by circulating gram-negative bacterial cell components. FASEB J 15 (2001) 155-163
22. Lacroix S., Feinstein D., and Rivest. The bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide has the ability to target the brain in upregulating its membrane CD14 receptor within specific cellular populations. Brain Pathol 8 (1998) 625-640
23. Cunningham Jr. E.T., Wada E., Carter D.B., et al. In situ histochemical localization of type I interleukin-1 receptor messenger RNA in the central nervous system, pituitary, and adrenal gland of the mouse. J Neurosci 12 3 (1992) 1101-1114
24. Vallieres L., and Rivest S. Regulation of the genes encoding interleukin-6, its receptor, and gp130 in the rat brain in response to the immune activator lipopolysaccharide and the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1beta. J Neurochem 69 4 (1997) 1668-1683
25. Nadeau S., and Rivest S. Effects of circulating tumor necrosis factor on the neuronal activity and expression of the genes encoding the tumor necrosis factor receptors (p55 and p75) in the rat brain: a view from the blood-brain barrier. Neuroscience 93 4 (1999) 1449-1464
26. Turnbull A.W., and Rivier C.L. Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis cytokines: actions and mechanisms of action. Physiol Rev 79 (1999) 1-71
27. Dantzer R. Cytokine-induced sickness behaviour: a neuroimmune response to activation of innate immunity. Eur J Pharmacol 500 1-3 (2004) 399-411
28. Roth J., Harre E.M., Rummel C., et al. Signaling the brain in systemic inflammation: role of sensory circumventricular organs. Front Biosci 9 (2004) 290-300
29. Wong M.L., Bongiorno P.B., Rettori V., et al. Interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-1 receptor antagonist, IL-10, and IL-13 gene expression in the central nervous system during systemic inflammation: pathophysiological implications. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94 (1997) 227-232
30. Konsman J.P., Kelley K., and Dantzer R. Temporal and spatial relationships between lipopolysaccharide-induced expression of Fos, interleukin-1 beta and inducible nitric oxide synthase in rat brain. Neuroscience 89 (1999) 535-548
31. Rivest S. Molecular insights on the cerebral innate immune system. Brain Behav Immun 17 (2003) 13-19
32. Bowman C.C., Rasley A., Tranguch S.L., et al. Cultured astrocytes express toll-like receptors for bacterial products. Glia 43 (2003) 281-291
33. Wadachi R., and Hargreaves K.M. Trigeminal nociceptors express TLR-4 and CD14: a mechanism for pain due to infection. J Dent Res 85 1 (2006) 49-53
34. Aloisi F., Penna G., Cerase J., et al. IL-12 production by central nervous system microglia is inhibited by astrocytes. J Immunol 159 (1997) 1604-1612
35. Lee Y.B., Nagai A., and Kim S.U. Cytokines, chemokines, and cytokine receptors in human microglia. J Neurosci Res 69 (2002) 94-103
36. Ledeboer A., Breve J.J., Wierinckx A., et al. Expression and regulation of interleukin-10 and interleukin-10 receptor in rat astroglial and microglial cells. Eur J Neurosci 16 (2002) 1175-1185
37. Breder C.D., Hazuka C., Ghayur T., et al. Regional induction of tumor necrosis factor alpha expression in the mouse brain after systemic lipopolysaccharide administration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91 (1994) 11393-11397
38. Iwase K., Miyanaka K., Shimizu A., et al. Induction of endothelial nitric-oxide synthase in rat brain astrocytes by systemic lipopolysaccharide treatment. J Biol Chem 275 (2000) 11929-11933
39. Wong M.L., Bongiorno P.B., al-Shekhlee A., et al. IL-1 beta, IL-1 receptor type I and iNOS gene expression in rat brain vasculature and perivascular areas. Neuroreport 7 (1996) 2445-2448
40. Wong M.L., Rettori V., Shekhlee A.A., et al. Inducible nitric oxide synthase gene expression in the brain during systemic inflammation. Nat Med 2 (1996) 581-584
41. Quan N., Stern E.L., Whiteside M.B., et al. Induction of pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNAs in the brain after peripheral injection of subseptic doses of lipopolysaccharide in the rat. J Neuroimmunol 93 (1999) 72-80
42. Bredt D.S., Hwang P.M., and Snyder S.H. Localization of nitric oxide synthase indicating a neural role for nitric oxide. Nature 347 (1990) 768-770
43. Minc-Golomb D., Tsarfaty I., and Schwartz J.P. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase by neurones following exposure to endotoxin and cytokine. Br J Pharmacol 112 (1994) 720-722
44. Galea E., Reis D.J., and Feinstein D.L. Cloning and expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase from rat astrocytes. J Neurosci Res 37 (1994) 406-414
45. Heyen J.R., Ye S., Finck B.N., et al. Interleukin(IL)-10 inhibits IL-6 production in microglia by preventing activation of NF-kappaB. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 77 (2000) 138-147
46. Fontana A., Kristensen F., Dubs R., et al. Production of prostaglandin E and an interleukin-1 like factor by cultured astrocytes and C6 glioma cells. J Immunol 129 (1982) 2413-2419
47. Caggiano A.O., and Kraig R.P. Prostaglandin E receptor subtypes in cultured rat microglia and their role in reducing lipopolysaccharide-induced interleukin-1beta production. J Neurochem 72 (1999) 565-575
48. Elmquist J.K., Scammell T.E., and Saper C.B. Mechanisms of CNS response to systemic immune challenge: the febrile response. Trends Neurosci 20 (1997) 565-570
49. Kadoi Y., and Saito S. An alteration in the gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor system in experimentally induced septic shock in rats. Crit Care Med 24 2 (1996) 298-305
50. Kadoi Y., Saito S., Kunimoto F., et al. Impairment of the brain beta-adrenergic system during experimental endotoxemia. J Surg Res 61 2 (1996) 496-502
51. Vallieres L., and Rivest S. Interleukin-6 is a needed proinflammatory cytokine in the prolonged neural activity and transcriptional activation of corticotropin-releasing factor during endotoxemia. Endocrinology 140 9 (1999) 3890-3903
52. Pavlov V.A., Ochani M., Gallowitsch-Puerta M., et al. Central muscarinic cholinergic regulation of the systemic inflammatory response during endotoxemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103 13 (2006) 5219-5223
53. Ebersoldt M., Sharshar T., and Annane D. Sepsis-associated delirium. Intensive Care Med 33 6 (2007) 941-950
54. Papadopoulos M.C., Davies D.C., Moss R.F., et al. Pathophysiology of septic encephalopathy: a review. Crit Care Med 28 8 (2000) 3019-3024
55. Bal-Price A., and Brown G.C. Inflammatory neurodegeneration mediated by nitric oxide from activated glia-inhibiting neuronal respiration, causing glutamate release and excitotoxicity. J Neurosci 21 (2001) 6480-6491
56. Kim W.G., Mohney R.P., Wilson B., et al. Regional difference in susceptibility to lipopolysaccharide neurotoxicity in the rat brain: role of microglia. J Neurosci 20 (2000) 6309-6316
57. Sharshar T., Gray F., Poron F., et al. Multifocal necrotizing leukoencephalopathy in septic shock. Crit Care Med 30 10 (2002) 2371-2375
58. Barichello T., Fortunato J.J., Vitali A.M., et al. Oxidative variables in the rat brain after sepsis induced by cecal ligation and perforation. Crit Care Med 34 (2006) 886-889
59. Voigt K., Kontush A., Stuerenburg H.J., et al. Decreased plasma and cerebrospinal fluid ascorbate levels in patients with septic encephalopathy. Free Radic Res 36 (2002) 735-739
60. Christians E.S., Yan L.J., and Benjamin I.J. Heat shock factor 1 and heat shock proteins: critical partners in protection against acute cell injury. Crit Care Med 30 1 Suppl (2002) S43-S50
61. Chuang Y.C., Tsai J.L., Chang A.Y., et al. Dysfunction of the mitochondrial respiratory chain in the rostral ventrolateral medulla during experimental endotoxemia in the rat. J Biomed Sci 9 6 Pt 1 (2002) 542-548
62. Chan J.Y., Chang A.Y., Wang L.L., et al. Protein kinase C-dependent mitochondrial translocation of proapoptotic protein Bax on activation of inducible nitric-oxide synthase in rostral ventrolateral medulla mediates cardiovascular depression during experimental endotoxemia. Mol Pharmacol 71 4 (2007) 1129-1139
63. Messaris E., Memos N., Chatzigianni E., et al. Time-dependent mitochondrial-mediated programmed neuronal cell death survival in sepsis. Crit Care Med 32 (2004) 1764-1770
64. Sharshar T., Gray F., Lorin de la Grandmaison G., et al. Apoptosis of neurons in cardiovascular autonomic centers triggered by inducible nitric oxide synthase after death from septic shock. Lancet 362 (2003) 1799-1805
65. He B.P., Wen W., and Strong M.J. Activated microglia (BV-2) facilitation of TNF-alpha-mediated motor neuron death in vitro. J Neuroimmunol 128 1-2 (2002) 31-38
66. Neumann J., Gunzer M., Gutzeit H.O., et al. Microglia provide neuroprotection after ischemia. FASEB J 20 6 (2006) 714-716
67. Li L., Lu J., Tay S.S., et al. The function of microglia, either neuroprotection or neurotoxicity, is determined by the equilibrium among factors released from activated microglia in vitro. Brain Res 1159 (2007) 8-17
68. Omari K.M., and Dorovini-Zis K. CD40 expressed by human brain endothelial cells regulate CD4+ T cell adhesion to endothelium. J Neuroimmunol 134 (2003) 166-178
69. Wong D., and Dorovini-Zis K. Expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) by human brain microvessel endothelial cells in primary culture. Microvasc Res 49 (1995) 325-339
70. Hess D.C., Thompson Y., Sprinkle A., et al. E-selectin on human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Neurosci Lett 213 (1996) 37-40
71. Rieckmann P., Michel U., Albrecht M., et al. Cerebral endothelial cells are a major source for soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in the human central nervous system. Neurosci Lett 186 (1995) 61-64
72. Hess D.C., Bhutawala T., Sheppard J.C., et al. ICAM-1 expression on human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Neurosci Lett 168 (1994) 201-204
73. Lacroix S., and Rivest S. Effect of acute systemic inflammatory response and cytokines on the transcription genes encoding cyclooxygenase enzymes (COX-1 and COX-2) in the rat brain. J Neurochem 70 (1998) 452-466
74. Cao C., Matsumura K., Ozaki M., et al. Lipopolysaccharide injected into the cerebral ventricle evokes fever through induction of cyclooxygenase-2 in brain endothelial cells. J Neurosci 19 (1998) 716-725
75. Matsumura K., Cao C., Ozaki M., et al. Brain endothelial cells express cyclooxygenase-2 during lipopolysaccharide-induced fever: light and electron microscopic immunocytochemical studies. J Neurosci 18 (1998) 6279-6289
76. Arditi M., Zhou J., Torres M., et al. Lipopolysaccharide stimulates the tyrosine phosphorylation of mitogen-activated kinases p44, p42, and p41 in vascular endothelial cells in a soluble CD14-dependent manner: role of protein tyrosine phosphorylation in lipopolysaccharide-induced stimulation of endothelial cells. J Immunol 155 (1995) 3994-4003
77. Konsman J.P., Vigues S., Mackerlova L., et al. Rat brain vascular distribution of interleukin-1 type-1 receptor immunoreactivity: relationship to patterns of inducible cyclooxygenase expression by peripheral inflammatory stimuli. J Comp Neurol 472 (2004) 113-129
78. Reyes T.M., Fabry Z., and Coe C.L. Brain endothelial cell production of neuroprotective cytokine, interleukin-6, in response to noxious stimuli. Brain Res 851 (1999) 215-220
79. Fabry Z., Fitzsimmons K.M., Herlein J.A., et al. Production of cytokines interleukin-1 and 6 by murine brain microvessel endothelium and smooth muscle pericytes. J Neuroimmunol 47 (1993) 23-34
80. Freyer D., Manz R., Ziegenhorn A., et al. Cerebral endothelial cells release TNF-alpha after stimulation with cell walls of Streptococcus pneumoniae and regulate inducible nitric oxide synthase and ICAM-1 expression via autocrine loops. J Immunol 1 (1999) 4308-4314
81. Clawson C.C., Hartmann J.F., and Vernier R.L. Electron microscopy of the effect of gram-negative endotoxin on the blood-brain barrier. J Comp Neurol 127 (1966) 183-198
82. Jeppsson B., Freund H.R., ZG, et al. Blood-brain barrier derangement in sepsis: cause of septic encephalopathy?. Am J Surg 141 (1981) 136-142
83. Ring A., Weiser J.N., and Tuomanen E.I. Pneumococcal trafficking across the blood-brain barrier: molecular analysis of a novel bidirectional pathway. J Clin Invest 102 (1998) 347-360
84. Papadopoulos M.C., Lamb F.J., Moss R.F., et al. Faecal peritonitis causes oedema and neuronal injury in pig cerebral cortex. Clin Sci (Lond) 96 5 (1999) 461-466
85. Kafa I.M., Ari I., and Kurt M.A. The peri-microvascular edema in hippocampal CA1 area in a rat model of sepsis. Neuropathology 27 3 (2007) 213-220
86. Descamps L., Coisne C., Dehouck B., et al. Protective effect of glial cells against lipopolysaccharide-mediated blood-brain barrier injury. Glia 42 (2003) 46-58
87. Boje K.M. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase attenuates blood-brain barrier disruption during experimental meningitis. Brain Res 720 (1996) 75-83
88. Gaillard P.J., de Boer A.B., and Breimer D.D. Pharmalogical investigations on lipopolysaccharide-induced changes in the blood brain barrier in vitro. Microvasc Res 65 (2003) 24-31
89. Sharshar T., Carlier R., Bernard F., et al. Brain lesions in septic shock: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Intensive Care Med 33 5 (2007) 798-806
90. Bartynski W.S., Boardman J.F., Zeigler Z.R., et al. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome in infection, sepsis, and shock. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 27 10 (2006) 2179-2190
91. Schwaninger M., Sallmann S., Petersen N., et al. Bradykinin induces interleukin-6 expression in astrocytes through activation of nuclear factor-kappaB. J Neurochem 73 4 (1999) 1461-1466
92. Didier N., Romero I.A., Creminon C., et al. Secretion of interleukin-1beta by astrocytes mediates endothelin-1 and tumour necrosis factor-alpha effects on human brain microvascular endothelial cell permeability. J Neurochem 86 1 (2003) 246-254
93. Deli M.A., Descamps L., Dehouck M.P., et al. Exposure of tumor necrosis factor-alpha to luminal membrane of bovine brain capillary endothelial cells cocultured with astrocytes induces a delayed increase of permeability and cytoplasmic stress fiber formation of actin. J Neurosci Res 41 6 (1995) 717-726
94. Sharshar T., Annane D., de la Grandmaison G., et al. The neuropathology of septic shock. Brain Pathol 14 (2004) 21-33
95. Pollard V., Prough D.S., Deyo D.J., et al. Cerebral blood flow during experimental endotoxemia in volunteers. Crit Care Med 25 (1997) 1700-1706
96. Bowton D.L., Bertels N.H., Prough D.S., et al. Cerebral blood flow is reduced in patients with sepsis syndrome. Crit Care Med 17 (1989) 399-403
97. Maekawa T., Fujii Y., Sadamitsu D., et al. Cerebral circulation and metabolism in patients with septic encephalopathy. Am J Emerg Med 9 2 (1991) 139-143
98. Hariri R.J., Ghajar J.B., Bahramian K., et al. Alterations in intracranial pressure and cerebral blood volume in endotoxemia. Surg Gynecol Obstet 176 (1993) 155-166
99. Ekstrom-Jodal B., and Larsson L.E. Effects of dopamine on cerebral circulation and oxygen metabolism in endotoxic shock: an experimental study in dogs. Crit Care Med 10 (1982) 375-377
100. Parker J.L., and Emerson Jr. T.E. Cerebral hemodynamics, vascular reactivity, and metabolism during canine endotoxin shock. Circ Shock 4 1 (1977) 41-53
101. Weiner D.E. Effects of endotoxin on cerebral blood flow in the monkey. Am J Physiol 218 1 (1970) 160-164
102. Hinkelbein J., Schroeck H., Peterka A., et al. Local cerebral blood flow is preserved in sepsis. Curr Neurovasc Res 4 1 (2007) 39-47
103. Smith S.M., Padayachee S., Modaresi K.B., et al. Cerebral blood flow is proportional to cardiac index in patients with septic shock. J Crit Care 13 3 (1998) 104-109
104. Pedersen M., Brandt C.T., Knudsen G.M., et al. The effect of S pneumoniae bacteremia on cerebral blood flow autoregulation in rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab (2007) in press
105. de Courten-Myers G.M., Xi G., Hwang J.H., et al. Hypoglycemic brain injury: potentiation from respiratory depression and injury aggravation from hyperglycemic treatment overshoots. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 20 1 (2000) 82-92
106. Mori F., Nishie M., Houzen H., et al. Hypoglycemic encephalopathy with extensive lesions in the cerebral white matter. Neuropathology 26 2 (2006) 147-152
107. Kalimo H., and Olsson Y. Effects of severe hypoglycemia on the human brain: neuropathological case reports. Acta Neurol Scand 62 6 (1980) 345-356
108. Van den Berghe G., Schoonheydt K., Becx P., et al. Insulin therapy protects the central and peripheral nervous system of intensive care patients. Neurology 64 8 (2005) 1348-1353
109. Basler T., Meier-Hellmann A., Bredle D., et al. Amino acid imbalance early in septic encephalopathy. Intensive Care Med 28 (2002) 293-298
110. Sprung C.L., Cerra F.B., Freund H.R., et al. Amino acid alterations and encephalopathy in the sepsis syndrome. Crit Care Med 19 6 (1991) 753-757
111. Freund H.R., Muggia-Sullam M., Peiser J., et al. Brain neurotransmitter profile is deranged during sepsis and septic encephalopathy in the rat. J Surg Res 38 (1985) 267-271
112. Monfort P., Munoz M.D., ElAyadi A., et al. Effects of hyperammonemia and liver failure on glutamatergic neurotransmission. Metab Brain Dis 17 4 (2002) 237-250
113. Kraft R., Grimm C., Grosse K., et al. Hydrogen peroxide and ADP-ribose induce TRPM2-mediated calcium influx and cation currents in microglia. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 286 1 (2004) C129-C137
114. Hoffmann A., Kann O., Ohlemeyer C., et al. Elevation of basal intracellular calcium as a central element in the activation of brain macrophages (microglia): suppression of receptor-evoked calcium signaling and control of release function. J Neurosci 23 11 (2003) 4410-4419
115. Hellstrom I.C., Danik M., Luheshi G.N., et al. Chronic LPS exposure produces changes in intrinsic membrane properties and a sustained IL-beta-dependent increase in GABAergic inhibition in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. Hippocampus 15 5 (2005) 656-664
116. Pandharipande P., Cotton B.A., Shintani A., et al. Motoric subtypes of delirium in mechanically ventilated surgical and trauma intensive care unit patients. Intensive Care Med 33 10 (2007) 1726-1731
117. Devlin J.W., Fong J.J., Fraser G.L., et al. Delirium assessment in the critically ill. Intensive Care Med 33 6 (2007) 929-940
118. de Jonghe B., Cook D., Griffith L., et al. Adaptation to the intensive care environment (ATICE): development and validation of a new sedation assessment instrument. Crit Care Med 31 (2003) 2344-2354
119. Ely E.W., Truman B., Manzi D.J., et al. Consciousness monitoring in ventilated patients: bispectral EEG monitors arousal not delirium. Intensive Care Med 30 8 (2004) 1537-1543
120. Kress J.P., Pohlman A.S., O'Connor M.F., et al. Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med 342 20 (2000) 1471-1477
121. Piazza O., Russo E., Cotena S., et al. Elevated S100B levels do not correlate with the severity of encephalopathy during sepsis. Br J Anaesth 24 (2007) 518-521
122. Finelli P.F., and Uphoff D.F. Magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities with septic encephalopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75 (2004) 1189-1191
123. Wang H., Wu Y.B., and Du X.H. Effect of dexamethasone on nitric oxide synthase and Caspase-3 gene expressions in endotoxemia in neonate rat brain. Biomed Environ Sci 18 3 (2005) 181-186
124. Kadoi Y., and Goto F. Selective inducible nitric oxide inhibition can restore hemodynamics, but does not improve neurological dysfunction in experimentally-induced septic shock in rats. Anesth Analg 99 1 (2004) 212-220
125. Li H., and Forstermann U. Nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of vascular disease. J Pathol 190 (2000) 244-254
126. Lopez A., Lorente J.A., Steingrub J., et al. Multiple-center, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor 546C88: effect on survival in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med 32 1 (2004) 21-30
127. Veszelka S., Urbanyi Z., Pazmany T., et al. Human serum amyloid P component attenuates the bacterial lipopolysaccharide-induced increase in blood-brain barrier permeability in mice. Neurosci Lett 352 1 (2003) 57-60
128. Esen F., Erdem T., Aktan D., et al. Effect of magnesium sulfate administration on blood-brain barrier in a rat model of intraperitoneal sepsis: a randomized controlled experimental study. Crit Care 9 1 (2005) R18-R23
129. Abd El-Gawad H.M., and Khalifa A.E. Quercetin, coenzyme Q10, and L-canavanine as protective agents against lipid peroxidation and nitric oxide generation in endotoxin-induced shock in rat brain. Pharmacol Res 43 3 (2001) 257-263
130. Huang M., Liu W., Li Q., et al. Endogenous released ascorbic acid suppresses ethanol-induced hydroxyl radical production in rat striatum. Brain Res 944 1-2 (2002) 90-96