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Volumn 38, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 331-348

Food fight! Davis versus regan on the ethics of eating beef

(1)  Lamey, Andy a  

a NONE

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EID: 38849086325     PISSN: 00472786     EISSN: 14679833     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9833.2007.00382.x     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (28)

References (52)
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    • Tom Regan, The Case for Animal Rights (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983).
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  • 2
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  • 3
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  • 7
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    • The least harm principle may require that humans consume a diet containing large herbivores, not a vegan diet
    • Steven L. Davis, "The Least Harm Principle May Require That Humans Consume a Diet Containing Large Herbivores, Not a Vegan Diet," Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 16, no. 4 (2003): 387-94.
    • (2003) Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics , vol.16 , Issue.4 , pp. 387-394
    • Davis, S.L.1
  • 8
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    • Should WeAll be vegetarians?
    • July 15
    • For media stories mentioning Davis, see Richard Corliss, "Should WeAll Be Vegetarians?" Time, July 15, 2002, 30;
    • (2002) Time , pp. 30
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  • 10
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    • Lee Dye, "Researcher: Vegetarian Diet Kills Animals Too," ABC News, May 1, 2002. Available at: http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id= 97836&page=1 (accessed April 12, 2006).
    • (2002) Researcher: Vegetarian Diet Kills Animals Too
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  • 11
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    • Does ethical meat eating maximize utility?
    • For the philosophical variation on Davis's proposal, see George Schedler, "Does Ethical Meat Eating Maximize Utility?" Social Theory and Practice 31, no. 4 (2005): 499-511.
    • (2005) Social Theory and Practice , vol.31 , Issue.4 , pp. 499-511
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    • Quoted
    • Quoted in Davis, "Least Harm," 388.
    • Least Harm , pp. 388
    • Davis1
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    • Fate of polynesian rats in hawaiian sugarcane fields during harvest
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    • (1971) Journal of Wildlife Management , vol.35 , Issue.2 , pp. 353-356
    • Nass, R.D.1    Hood, G.A.2    Lindsey, G.D.3
  • 15
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    • Vegan Outreach, "Defining 'Vegan'," http://www.veganoutreach. org/advocacy/definingvegan.html (accessed April 7, 2006).
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  • 16
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    • How Vegan?
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  • 17
    • 0004032965 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Oxford, Oxford University Press
    • The debate over honey has to do with whether or not honeybees warrant moral respect. Most animal philosophers exclude insects from the realm of moral concern, on the grounds that they are not vertebrates and do not have a central nervous system or nociceptors (pain receptors) in their brains. See Gary Varner, In Nature's Interests?: Animal Rights and Environmental Ethics (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998), for a summary of six studies which collectively suggest that insects, unlike vertebrates, do not feel pain.
    • (1998) Nature's Interests?: Animal Rights and Environmental Ethics
    • Varner, G.1
  • 18
    • 84888603685 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (For an online summary of Varner's research, see http://philosophy.tamu. edu/~gary/intro/pain.html). Some vegans, however, argue that simple conscious awareness, rather than suffering, is the foundation of moral respect, and so eschew products made from insects. I assume this second group represents only a tiny proportion of vegans, but am unaware of any survey data.
  • 19
    • 84888598703 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (accessed April 7, 2006)
    • Vegetarian Resource Group, "How Many Vegetarians Are There?" http://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2003issue3/vj2003issue3poll.htm (accessed April 7, 2006).
    • How Many Vegetarians Are There?
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    • The researchers note that whether or not the mice were killed by the fire depended on the location of their burrow: "Both mice that were killed by stubble burning had burrows directly below the straw lines, where the stubble fire burnt most fiercely. All three survivors had burrows between the straw lines. Post-mortem examination suggested that the mice had been asphyxiated by the stubble fire, and it is likely that as the fire passed overhead it drew the air out of the burrow system." Tew and Macdonald, "The Effects of Harvest," 282.
    • The Effects of Harvest , pp. 282
    • Tew1    Macdonald2
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    • Rights, justice and the duty to provide assistance: A critique of regan's theory of rights
    • In citing Michael Allen Fox's argument for the predation exception, I am aware that I am not offering a purely immanent defense of Regan. Like Fox, I believe that the inability of predators to engage in moral reasoning is a relevant consideration, but is not by itself sufficient grounds to justify an exception for predation (for criticism of Regan on this score, see Dale Jamieson, "Rights, Justice and the Duty to Provide Assistance: A Critique of Regan's Theory of Rights," Ethics 100, no. 2 [1990]: 349-62). However, this strikes me a minor deviation from Regan compared with the one I criticize in Davis below.
    • (1990) Ethics , vol.100 , Issue.2 , pp. 349-362
    • Jamieson, D.1
  • 25
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    • In fairness to Davis, the number of predator animals killed by ranchers is much smaller than the number of food animals. In the United States during 2002, they amounted to 86,000 coyotes, 5,000 foxes, 380 black bears, and 190 wolves. Erik Marcus, Meat Market: Animals, Ethics and Money (Ithaca: NY Brio, 2005), 198.
    • (2005) Meat Market: Animals, Ethics and Money , pp. 198
    • Marcus, E.1
  • 26
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    • On the other hand, Marcus also mentions a ninety-eight percent decline in the prairie dog population, which numbered five billion at the end of the nineteenth century. This, however, may be more of an environmental cost than anything else. On the issue of the environmental cost of animal agriculture, it has become common for animal advocates and environmentalists to claim that it takes 5,200 gallon of water to produce one pound of beef. Marcus convincingly debunks this apocryphal statistic, noting that "the environmental impact of meat production is far less costly than many vegetarian activists suggest." See Marcus, Meat Market, 195. Marcus, it is worth noting, is himself a vegan animal advocate.
    • Meat Market , pp. 195
    • Marcus1
  • 27
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    • Wildlife of agriculture, pastures and mixed environs
    • ed. David H. Johnson and Thomas A. O'Neil Corvallis: Oregon State University Press
    • On page 389 of his article, Davis also cites the following sentence fragment: "mowing of alfalfa caused a 50% decline in grey-tailed vole population." The fragment is taken from W. Daniel Edge, "Wildlife of Agriculture, Pastures and Mixed Environs," in Wildlife-Habitat Relationships in Oregon and Washington, ed. David H. Johnson and Thomas A. O'Neil (Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 2000).
    • (2000) Wildlife-Habitat Relationships in Oregon and Washington
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  • 28
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    • Density-dependent responses of gray-tailed voles to mowing
    • However, when one looks up the passage to which Davis is referring, it reads, "Edge et al. reported that mowing of alfalfa caused⋯." In other words, the sentence in question is itself a citation, and the ultimate reference is to W. Daniel Edge, Jerry O. Wolff, and Robert L. Carey, "Density-Dependent Responses of Gray-Tailed Voles to Mowing," Journal of Wildlife Management 59, no. 2 (1995): 245-51. When one turns to this second article, it turns out to be a study of the effects mowing has on voles birth rates and migration patterns. Importantly, the scientists do not describe any voles being killed by the act of mowing itself. It is also worth noting that the study did not take place in an actual alfalfa field. Rather it was conducted at an experimental farm where alfalfa was planted inside 45 by 45 meter enclosures, which were "constructed of galvanized sheet metal extending approximately 1 m above ground and 0.6-1.0 m below ground level to prevent escape by burrowing rodents." Edge et al., "Density-Dependent Responses," 246. A study with this aim and methodology is not relevant to a discussion of field animals killed by harvesters. Davis would appear to have misunderstood what Edge meant in his single-authored article by population "decline."
    • (1995) Journal of Wildlife Management , vol.59 , Issue.2 , pp. 245-251
    • Daniel Edge, W.1    Wolff, J.O.2    Carey, R.L.3
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    • Gaverick Matheny, "Least Harm: A Defense of Vegetarianism from Davis's Omnivorous Proposal," Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 16, no. 5 (2003): 509.
    • (2003) Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics , vol.16 , Issue.5 , pp. 509
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    • figures taken respectively
    • Matheny suggests in a personal communication that cropland may in fact be even more productive than he originally estimated. At the outer limit, he writes, land devoted to grazing cattle in a cold climate is sixty-seven times less productive than land devoted to soy crops. Matheny's revised estimate is based on a soybean crop yield of thirty-seven bushels per acre, with an average meal yield of forty-eight lbs per bushel, of which forty-eight percent is protein (figures taken respectively from http://www.unitedsoybean.org/ soystats2002/statesoystats/cropyield.html;
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    • http://www.unitedsoybean.org/soystats2002/miraclecrop.html
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    • and http://www.ag.iastate.edu/aginfo/news/1997/soyquality.html. Last checked October 29, 2006).
  • 35
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    • That works out to 852 lbs protein per acre (37 × 48 × 0.48), or 955 kg protein per hectare. Grazing cows, by contrast, gain an average of 131 kg per hectare, with an average 0.42 kg of meat per kilogram of liveweight, and 0.26 kg of protein per kilogram of meat (figures taken respectively from http://jas.fass.org/cgi/content/full/82/8/2503/T3;
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    • Last checked October 29, 2006
    • and http://www.calorie-count.com/calories/item/23502.html. Last checked October 29, 2006). That works out to 14.3 kg of protein per hectare (1310.42 × 0.26), or one sixty-seventh the amount produced from soy. As Matheny notes, pasture-finished cattle might have a different total efficiency, and grass-fed cows in a hotter climates could be considerably more productive. Nonetheless, he believes his revised figures are more representative than those in "Least Harm." For the purposes of rebutting Davis, the difference between Matheny's 1:10 and 1:67 ratios is academic, so I have continued to use the 1:10 figure in the main text. Given Davis's estimates regarding the number of animals killed in beef and crop farming, anything above a 1:2 ratio invalidates his argument.
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    • It has never been shown that cattle feces was the cause in this particular instance. I mention it only to give a sense of the damage Cryptosporidium can do. For more information, see Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, "Cryptosporidium: A Risk to Our Drinking Water," http://dnr.wi.gov/org/water/dwg/crypto.htm (Accessed April 8, 2006).
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    • Fegan, N.1    Vanderlinde, P.2    Higgs, G.3    Desmarchelier, P.4
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    • (2001) Wilderness and Environmental Medicine , vol.12 , Issue.3 , pp. 168-174
    • Langley, R.L.1    Hunter, J.L.2
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    • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Frequently Asked Questions." http://www.epa.gov/methane/rlep/faq.html (accessed October 24, 2006).
    • Frequently Asked Questions
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    • Methane emissions of beef cattle on forages: Efficiency of grazing management systems
    • A separate study found that grazing management practices can reduce methane emissions by twenty-two percent. See H. Alan DeRamus, Terry C. Clement, Dean D. Giampola, and Peter C. Dickison, "Methane Emissions of Beef Cattle on Forages: Efficiency of Grazing Management Systems," Journal of Environmental Quality 32 (2003): 269-77. This study does not address whether methane-reducing management methods would be feasible on a wide scale, but even if so, it would not change the point at hand, which concerns the greater amount of methane produced by any type of beef farming compared to crop and vegetable cultivation.
    • (2003) Journal of Environmental Quality , vol.32 , pp. 269-277
    • Alan De Ramus, H.1    Clement, T.C.2    Giampola, D.D.3    Dickison, P.C.4
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    • Position of the American dietetic association and dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets
    • The nutritional value of vegetarian food is documented in American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada, "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian Diets," Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103, no. 6 (2003): 748-65.
    • (2003) Journal of the American Dietetic Association , vol.103 , Issue.6 , pp. 748-765
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    • (1994) Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics , vol.7 , Issue.1 , pp. 111-122
    • Mangels, A.R.1    Havala, S.2
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