Archaeology through the keyhole: The serendipity effect of aerial reconnaissance revisited

Interdisciplinary Science Reviews

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 118-134

  Fowler, Martin J F ^a  

^a Les Rocquettes   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY; AIRCRAFT; DETONATION; GEOLOGY; ICE; MAPPING; MATHEMATICAL MODELS; METEOROLOGY; MINERAL EXPLORATION; SATELLITES;

ARCHAEOLOGY; CIVILIAN SATELLITES; PHOTORECONNAISSANCE IMAGERY; SERENDIPITY EFFECT;

REMOTE SENSING;

EID: 3843096028     PISSN: 03080188     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (88)

1. D. A. Brugioni: 'The serendipity effect of aerial reconnaissance', Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 1989, 14, 16-28. This was an unclassified version of a formerly 'secret' article entitled 'The serendipity effect' that had appeared nineteen years earlier in the Spring 1970 issue of the Central Intelligence Agency's classified house journal Studies in Intelligence (declassified 1994, US National Archives and Records Administration, Research Group 263).
2. Because of the highly classified nature of these activities, with the exception of the first generation of satellite systems described later in this review descriptions in the open literature of photoreconnaissance satellite systems are somewhat speculative, but they can nonetheless be considered to be broadly indicative of their capabilities. See for example C. Peebles: Guardians Strategic Reconnaissance Satellites; 1987, San Francisco, CA, Presidio; J. T. Richelson: America's Secret Eyes in Space: The US Keyhole Spy Satellite Program; 1990, New York, NY, Harper Collins.
3. Because of the highly classified nature of these activities, with the exception of the first generation of satellite systems described later in this review descriptions in the open literature of photoreconnaissance satellite systems are somewhat speculative, but they can nonetheless be considered to be broadly indicative of their capabilities. See for example C. Peebles: Guardians Strategic Reconnaissance Satellites; 1987, San Francisco, CA, Presidio; J. T. Richelson: America's Secret Eyes in Space: The US Keyhole Spy Satellite Program; 1990, New York, NY, Harper Collins.
4. See M. Bowden (ed.): Unravelling the Landscape, 105-118; 1999, Stroud, Tempus; and R. H. Bewley: 'Aerial survey for archaeology', Photogrammetric Record, 2003, 18, 273-292.
5. See M. Bowden (ed.): Unravelling the Landscape, 105-118; 1999, Stroud, Tempus; and R. H. Bewley: 'Aerial survey for archaeology', Photogrammetric Record, 2003, 18, 273-292.
6. D. R. Wilson: Air Photo Interpretation for Archaeologists; 2000, Stroud, Tempus.
7. See for example R. Palmer: Danebury. An Iron Age Hillfort in Hampshire: An Aerial Photographic Interpretation of its Environs; 1984, London, Royal Commission on Historical Monuments; S. Crutchley: 'The landscape of Salisbury Plain, as revealed by aerial photography', Landscapes, 2001, 2, (2), 46-64; P. Horne and D. Macleod: "Unravelling a Wharfedale landscape: a case study in field enhanced aerial survey', Landscapes, 2001, 2, (2), 65-82.
8. See for example R. Palmer: Danebury. An Iron Age Hillfort in Hampshire: An Aerial Photographic Interpretation of its Environs; 1984, London, Royal Commission on Historical Monuments; S. Crutchley: 'The landscape of Salisbury Plain, as revealed by aerial photography', Landscapes, 2001, 2, (2), 46-64; P. Horne and D. Macleod: "Unravelling a Wharfedale landscape: a case study in field enhanced aerial survey', Landscapes, 2001, 2, (2), 65-82.
9. See for example R. Palmer: Danebury. An Iron Age Hillfort in Hampshire: An Aerial Photographic Interpretation of its Environs; 1984, London, Royal Commission on Historical Monuments; S. Crutchley: 'The landscape of Salisbury Plain, as revealed by aerial photography', Landscapes, 2001, 2, (2), 46-64; P. Horne and D. Macleod: "Unravelling a Wharfedale landscape: a case study in field enhanced aerial survey', Landscapes, 2001, 2, (2), 65-82.
10. For example, in his seminal study of the landscape surrounding the Iron Age hillfort at Danebury in southern England, Palmer (see Note 5) consulted 'several thousand' oblique aerial photographs in order to obtain suitable coverage (both spatial and temporal) of his four hundred and fifty square kilometre study area.
11. See for example J. I. Ebert: 'Remote sensing applications in archaeology', Advances in Archaeological Methods and Theory, 1984, 7, 293-362; J. I. Ebert Techniques, methods and theoretical goals in American archaeological remote sensing: "predictive modelling" as an example', in Into the Sun: Essays in Air Photography in Archaeology in Honour of Derrick Riley, (ed. D. Kennedy), 86-101; 1989, Sheffield, J. R. Collis Publications; M. J. F. Fowler 'Satellite archaeology', Spaceflight, 1991, 33, 281-283.
12. See for example J. I. Ebert: 'Remote sensing applications in archaeology', Advances in Archaeological Methods and Theory, 1984, 7, 293-362; J. I. Ebert Techniques, methods and theoretical goals in American archaeological remote sensing: "predictive modelling" as an example', in Into the Sun: Essays in Air Photography in Archaeology in Honour of Derrick Riley, (ed. D. Kennedy), 86-101; 1989, Sheffield, J. R. Collis Publications; M. J. F. Fowler 'Satellite archaeology', Spaceflight, 1991, 33, 281-283.
13. See for example J. I. Ebert: 'Remote sensing applications in archaeology', Advances in Archaeological Methods and Theory, 1984, 7, 293-362; J. I. Ebert Techniques, methods and theoretical goals in American archaeological remote sensing: "predictive modelling" as an example', in Into the Sun: Essays in Air Photography in Archaeology in Honour of Derrick Riley, (ed. D. Kennedy), 86-101; 1989, Sheffield, J. R. Collis Publications; M. J. F. Fowler 'Satellite archaeology', Spaceflight, 1991, 33, 281-283.
14. J. Quann and B. Bevan: The pyramids from 900 kilometres', MASCA Newsletter, 1977, 13, 12-14.
15. R. McAdams: Heartland of Cities, 28-33; 1981, Chicago, IL, University of Chicago Press.
16. T. S. Richards: 'Evidence of ancient rainwater concentrating structures in northern Egypt as seen on Landsat MSS imagery', International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1989, 10, 1135-1140.
17. See for example C. Cox: 'Satellite imagery, aerial photography and wetland archaeology', World Archaeology, 1992, 24, 249-267; C. D. Clark, S. M. Garrod and M. Parker Pearson: 'Landscape archaeology, and remote sensing in southern Madagascar', International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1998, 19, 1461-1477.
18. See for example C. Cox: 'Satellite imagery, aerial photography and wetland archaeology', World Archaeology, 1992, 24, 249-267; C. D. Clark, S. M. Garrod and M. Parker Pearson: 'Landscape archaeology, and remote sensing in southern Madagascar', International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1998, 19, 1461-1477.
19. See M. J. F. Fowler: 'High resolution satellite imagery in archaeological application: a Russian satellite photograph of the Stonehenge region', Antiquity, 1996, 70, 667-671; M. J. F. Fowler: 'A high-resolution satellite image of archaeological features to the south of Stonehenge', International Journal of Remote Sensing, 2001, 22, 1167-1171; M. J. F. Fowler: 'Satellite remote sensing and archaeology: a comparative study of satellite imagery of the environs of Figsbury Ring, Wiltshire', Archaeological Prospection, 2003, 9, 55-69.
20. See M. J. F. Fowler: 'High resolution satellite imagery in archaeological application: a Russian satellite photograph of the Stonehenge region', Antiquity, 1996, 70, 667-671; M. J. F. Fowler: 'A high-resolution satellite image of archaeological features to the south of Stonehenge', International Journal of Remote Sensing, 2001, 22, 1167-1171; M. J. F. Fowler: 'Satellite remote sensing and archaeology: a comparative study of satellite imagery of the environs of Figsbury Ring, Wiltshire', Archaeological Prospection, 2003, 9, 55-69.
21. See M. J. F. Fowler: 'High resolution satellite imagery in archaeological application: a Russian satellite photograph of the Stonehenge region', Antiquity, 1996, 70, 667-671; M. J. F. Fowler: 'A high-resolution satellite image of archaeological features to the south of Stonehenge', International Journal of Remote Sensing, 2001, 22, 1167-1171; M. J. F. Fowler: 'Satellite remote sensing and archaeology: a comparative study of satellite imagery of the environs of Figsbury Ring, Wiltshire', Archaeological Prospection, 2003, 9, 55-69.
22. A. Comfort 'Satellite remote sensing and archaeological survey on the Euphrates', Archaeological Computing Newsletter, 1997, 48, 1-8.
23. The terraserver website can be found at www.terraserver.com. At the time of writing (April 2004), the former coverage of KVR-1000 imagery was gradually being returned to the site.
24. M. J. F. Fowler: The Colosseum of Rome from 681 kilometres', AARGnews, 2000, 20, 47-50; M. J. F. Fowler: 'Sub-metre resolution satellite imagery', AARGnews, 2002, 24, 11-13.
25. M. J. F. Fowler: The Colosseum of Rome from 681 kilometres', AARGnews, 2000, 20, 47-50; M. J. F. Fowler: 'Sub-metre resolution satellite imagery', AARGnews, 2002, 24, 11-13.
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27. J. F. McCauley, C. S. Breed, G. G. Schaber, W. P. McHugh, B. Issawi, C. V. Haynes, M. J. Grolier and A. El Kilani: 'Palaeodrainages of the Eastern Sahara: the radar rivers revisited (SIR-A/B implications for a mid-Tertiary trans-African drainage system), IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 1986, GE-24, 624-648.
28. W. P. McHugh, C. S. Breed, G. G. Schaber, J. F. McCauley and B. J. Szabo: 'Acheulian sites along the "radar rivers", southern Egyptian Sahara', Journal of Field Archaeology, 1988, 15, 361-379; W. P. McHugh, G. G. Schaber, C. S. Breed and J. F. McCauley: 'Neolithic adaptation and the Holocene functioning of Tertiary palaeodrainages in southern Egypt and northern Sudan', Antiquity, 1989, 63, 320-336.
29. W. P. McHugh, C. S. Breed, G. G. Schaber, J. F. McCauley and B. J. Szabo: 'Acheulian sites along the "radar rivers", southern Egyptian Sahara', Journal of Field Archaeology, 1988, 15, 361-379; W. P. McHugh, G. G. Schaber, C. S. Breed and J. F. McCauley: 'Neolithic adaptation and the Holocene functioning of Tertiary palaeodrainages in southern Egypt and northern Sudan', Antiquity, 1989, 63, 320-336.
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31. F. El-Baz: 'Space age archaeology', Scientific American, 1997, 277, (2), 40-45.
32. 'Angkor by satellite', Athena Review, 1995, 1, (1), 12-13.
33. M. J. F. Fowler and P. Darling: 'Archaeological applications of imaging radar', AARGnews, 1998, 17, 19-24.
34. A. Lefort, M. Grippa, N. Walker, L. J. Stewart and I. H. Woodhouse: 'Change detection across the Nasca pampa using spaceborne SAR interferometry', International Journal of Remote Sensing, 2004, 25, 1799-1803.
35. For a summary of the process that led to declassification see R. A. McDonald: 'Opening the Cold War sky to the public: declassifying satellite reconnaissance imagery', Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 1995, 61, 385-390.
36. Images can be browsed and ordered online through the EarthExplorer website (earthexplorer.usgs.gov). The cost of a single Corona image frame covering three and a half thousand square kilometres as a film positive is eighteen US dollars, equivalent to approximately half a cent per square kilometre.
37. For summaries of the Corona programme see K. C. Ruffner (ed.): CORONA America's First Satellite Program; 1995, Washington, DC, Central Intelligence Agency; R. A. McDonald: CORONA between the Sun and the Earth: the First NRO Reconnaissance Eye in Space; 1997, Bethesda, MD, American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing; D. A. Day, J. M. Logsdon and B. Latell: Eye in the Sky: The Story of the CORONA Spy Satellites; 1998, Washington, DC/London, Smithsonian Institution Press; and J. Cloud: 'Hidden in plain sight: the CORONA reconnaissance programme and clandestine Cold War science', Annals of Science, 2001, 58, 203-209.
38. For summaries of the Corona programme see K. C. Ruffner (ed.): CORONA America's First Satellite Program; 1995, Washington, DC, Central Intelligence Agency; R. A. McDonald: CORONA between the Sun and the Earth: the First NRO Reconnaissance Eye in Space; 1997, Bethesda, MD, American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing; D. A. Day, J. M. Logsdon and B. Latell: Eye in the Sky: The Story of the CORONA Spy Satellites; 1998, Washington, DC/London, Smithsonian Institution Press; and J. Cloud: 'Hidden in plain sight: the CORONA reconnaissance programme and clandestine Cold War science', Annals of Science, 2001, 58, 203-209.
39. For summaries of the Corona programme see K. C. Ruffner (ed.): CORONA America's First Satellite Program; 1995, Washington, DC, Central Intelligence Agency; R. A. McDonald: CORONA between the Sun and the Earth: the First NRO Reconnaissance Eye in Space; 1997, Bethesda, MD, American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing; D. A. Day, J. M. Logsdon and B. Latell: Eye in the Sky: The Story of the CORONA Spy Satellites; 1998, Washington, DC/London, Smithsonian Institution Press; and J. Cloud: 'Hidden in plain sight: the CORONA reconnaissance programme and clandestine Cold War science', Annals of Science, 2001, 58, 203-209.
40. For summaries of the Corona programme see K. C. Ruffner (ed.): CORONA America's First Satellite Program; 1995, Washington, DC, Central Intelligence Agency; R. A. McDonald: CORONA between the Sun and the Earth: the First NRO Reconnaissance Eye in Space; 1997, Bethesda, MD, American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing; D. A. Day, J. M. Logsdon and B. Latell: Eye in the Sky: The Story of the CORONA Spy Satellites; 1998, Washington, DC/London, Smithsonian Institution Press; and J. Cloud: 'Hidden in plain sight: the CORONA reconnaissance programme and clandestine Cold War science', Annals of Science, 2001, 58, 203-209.
41. D. A. Day et al.: Eye in the Sky, p. 46 (see Note 26).
42. Corona Program History, Vol. III, CORONA cameras, 19 May 1976 (declassified 1997, National Reconnaissance Office declassified collection of Corona, Argon and Lanyard records).
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44. See the note on 'Historical imagery declassification' on the US National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency website (www.nima.mil). Whilst the programme name of the KH-9 system has not been officially released, it is generally understood to be Hexagon. It is also sometimes referred to as 'Big bird' on account of the large size of the satellite (see J. T. Richelson: America's Secret Eyes in Space, p. 106 (Note 2)).
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64. See Note 34.
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68. See F. Baken 'The Berlin Wall: production, preservation and consumption of a 20th century monument', Antiquity, 1993, 67, 709-733; C. Dobinson, J. Lake and A. J. Schofield: 'Monuments of war: defining England's 20th century defence heritage', Antiquity, 1997, 71, 288-299; W. D. Cocroft and R. J. C. Thomas: Cold War Building for Nuclear Confrontation 1946-1989; 2003, Swindon, English Heritage.
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71. For a brief review of the origins of the use of intelligence data for environmental studies, see J. T. Ricbelson: 'Scientists in black', Scientific American, 1998, 278, (2), 48-55.
72. R. Bindschadler and P. Vornberger 'Changes in the West Antarctic ice sheet since 1963 from declassified satellite photography', Science, 1998, 279, 689-692.
73. G. Zhou and K. C. Jezek: 'Satellite photograph mosaics of Greenland from the 1960s era', International Journal of Remote Sensing, 2002, 23, 1143-1159.
74. C. Oppenheimer and P. Francis: 'Remote sensing of heat, leva and fumarole emissions from Erta 'Ale volcano, Ethiopia', International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1997, 18, 1661-1692.
75. G. G. Tappan, A. Hadj, E. C. Wood and R. W. Lietzow: 'Use of ARGON, CORONA, and LANDSAT imagery to assess 30 years of land resource changes in West-Central Senegal', Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 2000, 66, 727-735.
76. S. Clandillon, C. Meyer and P. De Fraipont 'EO social and environmental monitoring of a UNESCO biosphere reserve: case study over the Vosges du Nord and Pfalzerwald parks', in Space Applications for Heritage Conservation; 2002, Paris, European Space Agency (CD ROM).
77. O. Rigina: 'Detection of boreal forest decline with high-resolution panchromatic satellite imagery', International Journal of Remote Sensing, 2003, 24, 1895-1912.
78. V. Gupta and D. Rich: 'Locating the detonation point of China's first nuclear explosive test on 16 October 1964', International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1996, 17, 1969-1974.
79. H. Zhang: 'Uses of commercial satellite imagery in FMCT verification', Nonproliferation Review, 2000, 7, (2), 120-135.
80. A. Altmaier and C. Kany: 'Digital surface model generation from CORONA satellite images', ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 2002, 56, 221-235.
81. F. F. Sabins: Remote Sensing: Principles and Interpretation, 3rd edn, 339-385; 1996, New York, NY, W. H. Freeman.
82. B. Rein and H. Kaufmann: 'Exploration for gold using panchromatic stereoscopic intelligence satellite photographs and Landsat TM data in the Hebei area, China', International Journal of Remote Sensing, 2003, 24, 2427-2438.
83. 'KH-4B system capability: appraisal of geologic value for mineral resources exploration', March 1971 (declassified 1997, National Reconnaissance Office declassified collection of Corona, Argon and Lanyard records), reprinted in K. C. Ruffher (ed.): CORONA, pp. 317-357 (see Note 26).
84. See R. A. McDonald: 'CORONA: success for space reconnaissance, a look into the Cold War, and a revolution for intelligence', Photogrammetric Engneering and Remote Sensing, 1995, 61, 689-720; D. A. Brugioni: The art and science of photoreconnaissance', Scientific American, 1996, 274, (3), 78-85; J. Cloud: Imaging the world in a barrel: CORONA and the clandestine convergence of the earth sciences', Social Stadies in Science, 2001, 31, 231-251; D. J. Warner: "Political geodesy: the Army, the Air Force, and the World Geodetic System of 1960', Annals of Science, 2002, 59, 363-389.
85. See R. A. McDonald: 'CORONA: success for space reconnaissance, a look into the Cold War, and a revolution for intelligence', Photogrammetric Engneering and Remote Sensing, 1995, 61, 689-720; D. A. Brugioni: The art and science of photoreconnaissance', Scientific American, 1996, 274, (3), 78-85; J. Cloud: Imaging the world in a barrel: CORONA and the clandestine convergence of the earth sciences', Social Stadies in Science, 2001, 31, 231-251; D. J. Warner: "Political geodesy: the Army, the Air Force, and the World Geodetic System of 1960', Annals of Science, 2002, 59, 363-389.
86. See R. A. McDonald: 'CORONA: success for space reconnaissance, a look into the Cold War, and a revolution for intelligence', Photogrammetric Engneering and Remote Sensing, 1995, 61, 689-720; D. A. Brugioni: The art and science of photoreconnaissance', Scientific American, 1996, 274, (3), 78-85; J. Cloud: Imaging the world in a barrel: CORONA and the clandestine convergence of the earth sciences', Social Stadies in Science, 2001, 31, 231-251; D. J. Warner: "Political geodesy: the Army, the Air Force, and the World Geodetic System of 1960', Annals of Science, 2002, 59, 363-389.
87. See R. A. McDonald: 'CORONA: success for space reconnaissance, a look into the Cold War, and a revolution for intelligence', Photogrammetric Engneering and Remote Sensing, 1995, 61, 689-720; D. A. Brugioni: The art and science of photoreconnaissance', Scientific American, 1996, 274, (3), 78-85; J. Cloud: Imaging the world in a barrel: CORONA and the clandestine convergence of the earth sciences', Social Stadies in Science, 2001, 31, 231-251; D. J. Warner: "Political geodesy: the Army, the Air Force, and the World Geodetic System of 1960', Annals of Science, 2002, 59, 363-389.
88. D. T. Lindgren: Trust but Verify: Imagery Analysis in the Cold War, 2001, Annapolis, MD, Naval Institute Press.