Trachoma: An overview

British Medical Bulletin

Volumn 84, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 99-116

  Burton, Matthew J ^a  

^a LONDON SCHOOL OF HYGIENE AND TROPICAL MEDICINE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Chlamydia trachomatis; Epidemiology; Pathogenesis; Trachoma; Treatment

Indexed keywords

AZITHROMYCIN; TETRACYCLINE;

ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; BLINDNESS; CHLAMYDIA TRACHOMATIS; CONJUNCTIVA DISEASE; CONJUNCTIVITIS; DIARRHEA; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; ENTROPION; FEVER; HEADACHE; HEALTH PROGRAM; HEALTH PROMOTION; HUMAN; HYGIENE; IMMUNOPATHOLOGY; PATHOGENESIS; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; TRACHOMA; VOMITING;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; BLINDNESS; CHLAMYDIA TRACHOMATIS; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES; HUMANS; TRACHOMA; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION;

EID: 38149040990     PISSN: 00071420     EISSN: 14718391     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/bmb/ldm034     Document Type: Review

References (70)

1. Thylefors B, Dawson CR, Jones BR et al. (1987) A simple system for the assessment of trachoma and its complications. Bull World Health Organ, 65, 477-483.
2. Dawson CR, Jones BR, Tarizzo ML (1981) Guide to Trachoma Control. Geneva: World Health Organization.
3. Resnikoff S, Pascolini D, Etya'ale D et al. (2004) Global data on visual impairment in the year 2002. Bull World Health Organ, 82, 844-851.
4. Thylefors B, Negrel AD, Pararajasegaram R et al. (1995) Global data on blindness. Bull World Health Organ, 73, 115-121.
5. Jones BR (1975) The prevention of blindness from trachoma. Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK, 95, 16-33.
6. Polack S, Brooker S, Kuper H et al. (2005) Mapping the global distribution of trachoma. Bull World Health Organ, 83, 913-919.
7. Berhane Y, Worku A, Bejiga A (2006) National Survey on Blindness, Low Vision and Trachoma in Ethiopia. Federal Ministry of Health of Ethiopia.
8. Schachter J, Dawson CR (1990) The epidemiology of trachoma predicts more blindness in the future. Scand J Infect Dis Suppl, 69, 55-62.
9. Bailey R, Osmond C, Mabey DC et al. (1989) Analysis of the household distribution of trachoma in a Gambian village using a Monte Carlo simulation procedure. Int J Epidemiol, 18, 944-951.
10. Burton MJ, Holland MJ, Faal N et al. (2003) Which members of a community need antibiotics to control trachoma? Conjunctival chlamydia trachomatis infection load in Gambian villages. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 44, 4215-4222.
11. West SK, Munoz B, Turner VM et al. (1991) The epidemiology of trachoma in central Tanzania. Int J Epidemiol, 20, 1088-1092.
12. Katz J, Zeger SL, Tielsch JM (1988) Village and household clustering of xerophthalmia and trachoma. Int J Epidemiol, 17, 865-869.
13. Dawson CR, Daghfous T, Messadi M et al. (1976) Severe endemic trachoma in Tunisia. Br J Ophthalmol, 60, 245-252.
14. Schachter J, West SK, Mabey D et al. (1999) Azithromycin in control of trachoma. Lancet, 354, 630-635.
15. Dolin PJ, Faal H, Johnson GJ et al. (1998) Trachoma in the Gambia. Br J Ophthalmol, 82, 930-933.
16. Bailey R, Duong T, Carpenter R et al. (1999) The duration of human ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infection is age dependent. Epidemiol Infect, 123, 479-486.
17. Solomon AW, Holland MJ, Burton MJ et al. (2003) Strategies for control of trachoma: observational study with quantitative PCR. Lancet, 362, 198-204.
18. Congdon N, West S, Vitale S et al. (1993) Exposure to children and risk of active trachoma in Tanzanian women. Am J Epidemiol, 137, 366-372.
19. Burton MJ, Holland MJ, Makalo P et al. (2005) Re-emergence of Chlamydia trachomatis infection after mass antibiotic treatment of a trachoma-endemic Gambian community: a longitudinal study. Lancet, 365, 1321-1328.
20. Emerson PM, Cairncross S, Bailey RL et al. (2000) Review of the evidence base for the 'F' and 'E' components of the SAFE strategy for trachoma control. Trop Med Int Health, 5, 515-527.
21. Emerson PM, Lindsay SW, Alexander N et al. (2004) Role of flies and provision of latrines in trachoma control: cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 363, 1093-1098.
22. De Sole G (1987) Impact of cattle on the prevalence and severity of trachoma. Br J Ophthalmol, 71, 873-876.
23. Treharne JD (1988) The microbial epidemiology of trachoma. Int Ophthalmol, 12, 25-29.
24. Ward ME (1995) The immunobiology and immunopathology of chlamydial infections. APMIS, 103, 769-796.
25. Stephens RS, Kalman S, Lammel C et al. (1998) Genome sequence of an obligate intracellular pathogen of humans: Chlamydia trachomatis. Science, 282, 754-759.
26. Schachter J, Moncada J, Dawson CR et al. (1988) Nonculture methods for diagnosing chlamydial infection in patients with trachoma: a clue to the pathogenesis of the disease? J Infect Dis, 158, 1347-1352.
27. Solomon AW, Peeling RW, Foster A et al. (2004) Diagnosis and assessment of trachoma. Clin Microbiol Rev, 17, 982-1011.
28. Solomon AW, Holland MJ, Alexander ND et al. (2004) Mass treatment with single-dose azithromycin for trachoma. N Engl J Med, 351, 1962-1971.
29. Michel CE, Solomon AW, Magbanua JP et al. (2006) Field evaluation of a rapid point-of-care assay for targeting antibiotic treatment for trachoma control: a comparative study. Lancet, 367, 1585-1590.
30. Burton MJ, Bowman RJ, Faal H et al. (2006) The long-term natural history of trachomatous trichiasis in the gambia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 47, 847-852.
31. Burton MJ, Kinteh F, Jallow O et al. (2005) A randomised controlled trial of azithromycin following surgery for trachomatous trichiasis in the Gambia. Br J Ophthalmol, 89, 1282-1288.
32. Wright HR, Taylor HR (2005) Clinical examination and laboratory tests for estimation of trachoma prevalence in a remote setting: what are they really telling us? Lancet Infect Dis, 5, 313-320.
33. Burton MJ, Holland MJ, Jeffries D et al. (2006) Conjunctival chlamydial 16S ribosomal RNA expression in trachoma: is chlamydial metabolic activity required for disease to develop? Clin Infect Dis, 42, 463-470.
34. Abu el-Asrar AM, Geboes K, Tabbara KF et al. (1998) Immunopathogenesis of conjunctival scarring in trachoma. Eye, 12 (Pt 3a), 453-460.
35. Abu el-Asrar AM, Geboes K, Al Kharashi SA et al. (1998) Collagen content and types in trachomatous conjunctivitis. Eye, 12 (Pt 4), 735-739.
36. al Rajhi AA, Hidayat A, Nasr A et al. (1993) The histopathology and the mechanism of entropion in patients with trachoma. Ophthalmology, 100, 1293-1296.
37. Bailey RL, Kajbaf M, Whittle HC et al. (1993) The influence of local antichlamydial antibody on the acquisition and persistence of human ocular chlamydial infection: IgG antibodies are not protective. Epidemiol Infect, 111, 315-324.
38. Ramsey KH, Rank RG (1991) Resolution of chlamydial genital infection with antigenspecific T-lymphocyte lines. Infect Immun, 59, 925-931.
39. Bailey RL, Holland MJ, Whittle HC et al. (1995) Subjects recovering from human ocular chlamydial infection have enhanced lymphoproliferative responses to chlamydial antigens compared with those of persistently diseased controls. Infect Immun, 63, 389-392.
40. Holland MJ, Bailey RL, Hayes LJ et al. (1993) Conjunctival scarring in trachoma is associated with depressed cell-mediated immune responses to chlamydial antigens. J Infect Dis, 168, 1528-1531.
41. Rottenberg ME, Gigliotti-Rothfuchs A, Wigzell H (2002) The role of IFN-gamma in the outcome of chlamydial infection. Curr Opin Immunol, 14, 444-451.
42. Burton MJ, Bailey RL, Jeffries D et al. (2004) Cytokine and fibrogenic gene expression in the conjunctivas of subjects from a Gambian community where trachoma is endemic. Infect Immun, 72, 7352-7356.
43. West SK, Munoz B, Mkocha H et al. (2001) Progression of active trachoma to scarring in a cohort of Tanzanian children. Ophthalmic Epidemiol, 8, 137-144.
44. Conway DJ, Holland MJ, Bailey RL et al. (1997) Scarring trachoma is associated with polymorphism in the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) gene promoter and with elevated TNF-alpha levels in tear fluid. Infect Immun, 65, 1003-1006.
45. Natividad A, Hanchard N, Holland MJ et al. (2007) Genetic variation at the TNF locus and the risk of severe sequelae of ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infection in Gambians. Genes Immun, doi:10.1038/sj.gene. 6364384.
46. Natividad A, Wilson J, Koch O et al. (2005) Risk of trachomatous scarring and trichiasis in Gambians varies with SNP haplotypes at the interferon-gamma and interleukin-10 loci. Genes Immun, 6, 332-340.
47. Wynn TA (2004) Fibrotic disease and the T(H)1/T(H)2 paradigm. Nat Rev Immunol, 4, 583-594.
48. Natividad A, Cooke G, Holland M et al. (2006) A coding polymorphism in Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 reduces risk of scarring sequelae of ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infection. BMC Med Genet, 7, 40.
49. World Health Organization (1998) Global Elimination of Blinding Trachoma. Resolution WHA 51.11. Adopted by the World Health Assembly 16 May 1998.
50. Reacher MH, Munoz B, Alghassany A et al. (1992) A controlled trial of surgery for trachomatous trichiasis of the upper lid. Arch Ophthalmol, 110, 667-674.
51. Alemayehu W, Melese M, Bejiga A et al. (2004) Surgery for trichiasis by ophthalmologists versus integrated eye care workers: a randomized trial. Ophthalmology, 111, 578-584.
52. Bowman RJ, Soma OS, Alexander N et al. (2000) Should trichiasis surgery be offered in the village? A community randomised trial of village vs. health centre-based surgery. Trop Med Int Health, 5, 528-533.
53. Khandekar R, Mohammed AJ, Courtright P (2001) Recurrence of trichiasis: a long-term follow-up study in the Sultanate of Oman. Ophthalmic Epidemiol, 8, 155-161.
54. West SK, West ES, Alemayehu W et al. (2006) Single-dose azithromycin prevents trichiasis recurrence following surgery: randomized trial in Ethiopia. Arch Ophthalmol, 124, 309-314.
55. Mabey D, Fraser-Hurt N, Powell C (2005) Antibiotics for trachoma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, pCD001860.
56. Bailey RL, Arullendran P, Whittle HC et al. (1993) Randomised controlled trial of single-dose azithromycin in treatment of trachoma. Lancet, 342, 453-456.
57. Bowman RJ, Sillah A, Dehn C et al. (2000) Operational comparison of single-dose azithromycin and topical tetracycline for trachoma. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 41, 4074-4079.
58. Gray RH, Wabwire-Mangen F, Kigozi G et al. (2001) Randomized trial of presumptive sexually transmitted disease therapy during pregnancy in Rakai, Uganda. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 185, 1209-1217.
59. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 55 (RR-11), 1-94.
60. West SK, Munoz B, Mkocha H et al. (2005) Infection with Chlamydia trachomatis after mass treatment of a trachoma hyperendemic community in Tanzania: a longitudinal study. Lancet, 366, 1296-1300.
61. Lietman T, Porco T, Dawson C et al. (1999) Global elimination of trachoma: how frequently should we administer mass chemotherapy? [see comments]. Nat Med, 5, 572-576.
62. Leach AJ, Shelby-James TM, Mayo M et al. (1997) A prospective study of the impact of community-based azithromycin treatment of trachoma on carriage and resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae [see comments]. Clin Infect Dis, 24, 356-62.
63. Batt SL, Charalambous BM, Solomon AW et al. (2003) Impact of azithromycin administration for trachoma control on the carriage of antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47, 2765-2769.
64. Whitty CJ, Glasgow KW, Sadiq ST et al. (1999) Impact of community-based mass treatment for trachoma with oral azithromycin on general morbidity in Gambian children. Pediatr Infect Dis J, 18, 955-958.
65. Sadiq ST, Glasgow KW, Drakeley CJ et al. (1995) Effects of azithromycin on malariometric indices in The Gambia. Lancet, 346, 881-882.
66. West S, Munoz B, Lynch M et al. (1995) Impact of face-washing on trachoma in Kongwa, Tanzania [see comments]. Lancet, 345, 155-158.
67. Lynch M, West SK, Munoz B et al. (1994) Testing a participatory strategy to change hygiene behaviour: face washing in central Tanzania. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 88, 513-517.
68. Miller K, Pakpour N, Yi E et al. (2004) Pesky trachoma suspect finally caught. Br J Ophthalmol, 88, 750-751.
69. West SK, Emerson PM, Mkocha H et al. (2006) Intensive insecticide spraying for fly control after mass antibiotic treatment for trachoma in a hyperendemic setting: a randomised trial. Lancet, 368, 596-600.
70. Ngondi J, Onsarigo A, Matthews F et al. (2006) Effect of 3 years of SAFE (surgery, antibiotics, facial cleanliness, and environmental change) strategy for trachoma control in southern Sudan: a cross-sectional study. Lancet, 368, 589-595.