-
1
-
-
37949020772
-
-
Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000).
-
Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000).
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
84864895184
-
-
newsid962759861,43299,.
-
In a press release, the nation's largest gay civil rights group, the Human Rights Campaign, called the decision "a travesty of justice." Supreme Court Upholds Boy Scouts' Ban on Gays, at http://www.scoutingforall.org/ news/viewnews.cgi?newsid962759861,43299,.
-
Supreme Court Upholds Boy Scouts' Ban on Gays
-
-
-
3
-
-
37949028378
-
High Court Grants Scouts Right to Discriminate against Gay Youth in Schools, Says GLSEN
-
June 28, httpyAvww.scoutingforall.org/news/viewnews. cgi?newsid962760747,53726
-
A spokesperson for the Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (GLSEN) warned that Dale "sends the message that gay youth are second class citizens." High Court Grants Scouts Right to Discriminate Against Gay Youth in Schools, Says GLSEN, GLSEN NEWS, June 28, 2000, httpyAvww.scoutingforall.org/news/viewnews. cgi?newsid962760747,53726,. The irony of GLSEN's opposition, in particular, to the result in Dale will become apparent in the discussion of how freedom of association claims have led to the recognition of gay-straight student alliances in public schools across the country. See infra Part I.B.3.
-
(2000)
GLSEN News
-
-
-
4
-
-
37949040900
-
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2249.
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2249.
-
-
-
-
5
-
-
0042306172
-
Accommodating the Public Sphere: Beyond a Market Model
-
For fears that this might happen, see Nan D. Hunter, Accommodating the Public Sphere: Beyond a Market Model, 85 MlNN. L. REV. 1591, 1591 (2001) ("[Dale] may portend a substantial rewriting of expressive association law.... At a minimum, it weakens the claim to open participation in our civic culture by lesbians and gay men."), and 1603 (stating that Dale "flatly contradicts the Court's holding in Runyon v. McCrary" and that "[t]he Dale majority simply ignores Runyon"). For hopes that this might happen,
-
(2001)
Minn. L. Rev.
, vol.85
, pp. 1591
-
-
Hunter, N.D.1
-
6
-
-
78649975661
-
Antidiscrimination Laws and the First Amendment
-
"Dale suggests that the Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609
-
see David E. Bernstein, Antidiscrimination Laws and the First Amendment, 66 MO. L. REV. 83 ("Dale suggests that the Roberts [v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609 (1984)] era is thankfully over, and that the nine Justices of the Supreme Court... unanimously believe that antidiscrimination laws must be subject to the same constitutional scrutiny as other important laws with broad popular support.");
-
(1984)
MO. L. Rev.
, vol.66
, pp. 83
-
-
Bernstein, D.E.1
-
7
-
-
37949024249
-
Free Association: The Incoherence of Antidiscrimination Laws
-
Oct. 9
-
Richard A. Epstein, Free Association: The Incoherence of Antidiscrimination Laws," NAT"L REV., Oct. 9, 2000, at 38, 40 ("Rightly understood, Dale forces us to confront the multiple forms of forced private association that have been staples of the New Deal and the Great Society. For starters, ask whether Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act... can survive constitutional challenge under the First Amendment."). As I argue in Part III, infra, I think these reports of the death of anti-discrimination law after Dale are greatly exaggerated.
-
(2000)
NATL REV.
, pp. 38
-
-
Epstein, R.A.1
-
8
-
-
26044447418
-
Why is Religious Liberty the "First Freedom,"
-
The right to "free exercise" of religion is a close second. See Michael W. McConnell, Why is Religious Liberty the "First Freedom," 21 Cardozo L. Rev. 1243, 1244 (2000) (noting that many believe that protecting religious liberty "violates the neutrality that lies at the heart of the liberal state").
-
(2000)
Cardozo L. Rev.
, vol.21
, pp. 1243
-
-
McConnell, M.W.1
-
9
-
-
37949051824
-
-
note
-
The freedom of association also protects intimate association. Roberts, 468 U.S. at 617-20. This Essay does not treat that aspect of the freedom of association, which was not addressed by the majority or by the dissenters in Dale. For an argument that New Jersey's anti-discrimination law implicated BSA troops' freedom of intimate association, see John C. O'Quinn, Note, How Solemn is the Duty of the Mighty Chief: Mediating the Conflict of Rights in Boy Scouts of America v. Dale, 24 HARV. J.L. & PUB. POI/Y319, 352-64 (2000).
-
-
-
-
10
-
-
37949030071
-
-
See Roberts, 468 U.S. at 631-40 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
See Roberts, 468 U.S. at 631-40 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
11
-
-
37949032321
-
-
See id. at 617-29.
-
See id. at 617-29.
-
-
-
-
12
-
-
37949057483
-
-
394 U.S. 557, 565 (1969) (emphasis added) (striking down a state law making the private possession of obscenity a crime).
-
394 U.S. 557, 565 (1969) (emphasis added) (striking down a state law making the private possession of obscenity a crime).
-
-
-
-
13
-
-
0039510928
-
The Value of Free Speech
-
Martin Redish, The Value of Free Speech, 130 U. PA. L. REV. 591, 593 (1982).
-
(1982)
U. PA. L. Rev.
, vol.130
, pp. 591
-
-
Redish, M.1
-
14
-
-
37949033401
-
-
See Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15, 22-26 (1971) (reversing a criminal conviction for disturbing the peace).
-
See Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15, 22-26 (1971) (reversing a criminal conviction for disturbing the peace).
-
-
-
-
15
-
-
37949055698
-
-
See Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357, 371 (1927) (affirming a criminal conviction for membership in the Communist Labor Party).
-
See Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357, 371 (1927) (affirming a criminal conviction for membership in the Communist Labor Party).
-
-
-
-
17
-
-
37949012609
-
-
note
-
Act of June 15, 1917, ch. 30, tit. I, §3, 40 Stat. 219 (repealed 1948). Federal authorities prosecuted approximately 2,000 cases charging Espionage Act violations, which carried a penalty of fines of $10,000, up to twenty years in prison, or both. See GOLDSTEIN, supra note 13, at 108-13.
-
-
-
-
18
-
-
37949012197
-
-
249 U.S. 47 (1919).
-
249 U.S. 47 (1919).
-
-
-
-
19
-
-
37949015799
-
-
Id. at 51.
-
Id. at 51.
-
-
-
-
20
-
-
37949010484
-
-
252 U.S. 239, 240-42 (1920).
-
252 U.S. 239, 240-42 (1920).
-
-
-
-
21
-
-
37949032168
-
-
Id. at 252-53.
-
Id. at 252-53.
-
-
-
-
22
-
-
37949017614
-
-
Id. at 253 (Brandeis, J., dissenting) (emphasis added).
-
Id. at 253 (Brandeis, J., dissenting) (emphasis added).
-
-
-
-
23
-
-
37949037893
-
-
note
-
See Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616, 623-24 (1919) (affirming convictions of defendants, part of a group of anarchist Russian immigrants, for conspiring to curtail production of armaments necessary to the war effort by writing and distributing thousands of leaflets condemning U.S. military intervention in Russia following the 1917 Revolution); Frohwerk v. United States, 249 U.S. 204, 205-10 (1919) (affirming convictions of defendants, part of a group German sympathizers, for conspiring to violate the Act by printing and circulating a newspaper containing articles critical of the war).
-
-
-
-
24
-
-
37949000544
-
-
note
-
249 U.S. 211, 212 (1919); see also Gilbert v. Minnesota, 254 U.S. 325, 332-33 (1920) (affirming conviction of defendant, manager of the organization department of the Nonpartsian League, for giving an anti-war and antigovernment speech at a meeting of the League in violation of a state law similar to the Espionage Act).
-
-
-
-
26
-
-
37949019336
-
-
268 U.S. 652 (1925).
-
268 U.S. 652 (1925).
-
-
-
-
27
-
-
37949056709
-
-
Id. at 657.
-
Id. at 657.
-
-
-
-
28
-
-
37949027534
-
-
274 U.S. 357 (1927).
-
274 U.S. 357 (1927).
-
-
-
-
29
-
-
37948999021
-
-
Id. at 372.
-
Id. at 372.
-
-
-
-
30
-
-
0346933166
-
The First Amendment and the Ideal of Civic Courage: The Brandeis Opinion in Whitney v. California
-
Criminal Syndicalism Act of California, §2, pt. 4, 1919 Cal Stat. 281 (codified at Cal. Pen. Code §§11400-11402) (repealed 1991) (emphasis added). For a fuller discussion of \Vhitney"s life and trial, see Blasi, The First Amendment and the Ideal of Civic Courage: The Brandeis Opinion in Whitney v. California, 29 WM. & MARYL. REV. 653 (1988).
-
(1988)
WM. & Maryl. Rev.
, vol.29
, pp. 653
-
-
Blasi1
-
31
-
-
84864905523
-
-
Criminal Syndicalism Act of California, §1.
-
Criminal Syndicalism Act of California, §1.
-
-
-
-
32
-
-
37949045170
-
-
note
-
Whitney, 274 U.S. at 373 (Brandeis, J., concurring) (emphasis added). The Court reversed a conviction under a state criminal syndicalism statute in De Jonge v. Oregon, 299 U.S. 353 (1937), noting that the "right of peaceable assembly is a right cognate to those of free speech and free press and is equally fundamental." Id. at 364.
-
-
-
-
33
-
-
37949049123
-
-
note
-
Smith Act of 1940, §2(3) (codified at 18 U.S.C. §2385 (1994)) (emphasis added). Other federal legislation similarly targeted expressive association. See, e.g., Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950, tit. I, §§7-8 (codified at 50 U.S.C. §781) (repealed 1993) (requiring certain organizations to register with the Attorney General and to disclose internal information, including membership lists); Communist Control Act of 1954, 50 U.S.C. §§841-44 (outlawing the Communist Party).
-
-
-
-
34
-
-
37949023130
-
-
341 U.S. 494, 516-17 (1951).
-
341 U.S. 494, 516-17 (1951).
-
-
-
-
35
-
-
37949051422
-
-
W. at 498.
-
W. at 498.
-
-
-
-
36
-
-
37949020723
-
-
Id. at 511 (emphasis added).
-
Id. at 511 (emphasis added).
-
-
-
-
37
-
-
37949007993
-
-
357 U.S. 449,451 (1958).
-
357 U.S. 449,451 (1958).
-
-
-
-
38
-
-
37949033138
-
-
See infra Part II.C.4.
-
See infra Part II.C.4.
-
-
-
-
39
-
-
37949050917
-
-
note
-
See, e.g., NAACP v. Claiborne Hardware Co., 458 U.S. 886 (1982) (involving state tort law directed at stopping NAACP's efforts to organize black boycott of white merchants accused of racism); NAACP v. Button, 371 U.S. 415 (1963) (involving state law prohibiting solicitation of litigation directed at stopping NAACP's efforts to end public school segregation).
-
-
-
-
40
-
-
37949023825
-
-
Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357, 359 (1927).
-
Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357, 359 (1927).
-
-
-
-
41
-
-
37949018713
-
-
Patterson, 357 U.S. at 551.
-
Patterson, 357 U.S. at 551.
-
-
-
-
42
-
-
37949013764
-
-
Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444, 445 (1969) (reversing conviction of a Ku Klux Klan member prosecuted under the Ohio Criminal Syndicalism statute).
-
Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444, 445 (1969) (reversing conviction of a Ku Klux Klan member prosecuted under the Ohio Criminal Syndicalism statute).
-
-
-
-
43
-
-
37949056814
-
-
note
-
That's not to say the state is unconcerned with the speech of isolated individuals, see, e.g., Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296, 303-08 (1940) (reversing conviction of individual member of Jehovah's Witnesses for inciting a breach of the peace), though even here the state's concern with dissident sects is often evident.
-
-
-
-
44
-
-
37949048414
-
-
As of 1967, two-thirds of Americans reported they looked upon homosexuals with "disgust, discomfort, or fear." CHARLES KAISER, THE GAY METROPOLIS 162 (1997) (based on a poll conducted by CBS News and presented on national TV during a special report, "The Homosexuals," which aired March 7, 1967). Homosexuality was listed as a mental disorder by the American Psychiatric Association until 1973.
-
(1997)
The Gay Metropolis
, vol.162
-
-
Kaiser, C.1
-
47
-
-
37949057334
-
Levels of Scrutiny, the First Amendment, and Gay Rights
-
I am hardly alone in recognizing the centrality of the First Amendment to the struggle for gay equality. See id. at 111 (concluding that "the main legal protections [for the developing institutions of early gay subculture] were the first amendment's rights to associate, publish, and speak" and that "first amendment litigation was relatively successful"); H.N. Hirsch, Levels of Scrutiny, the First Amendment, and Gay Rights, 7 LAW & SEXUALITY 87, 100 (1997) ("Danger to our [gay] world, for the most part, did not come from laws outlawing sexual acts. Instead, the danger came from censorship and cultural repression. In cultural and social space protected by the First Amendment, I discovered a way of life and a community, rather than how to subvert the sodomy laws ....").
-
(1997)
Law & Sexuality
, vol.7
, pp. 87
-
-
Hirsch, H.N.1
-
48
-
-
37949029730
-
-
See Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186, 190-96 (1986) (upholding constitutionality of sodomy law as applied to same-sex conduct).
-
See Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186, 190-96 (1986) (upholding constitutionality of sodomy law as applied to same-sex conduct).
-
-
-
-
49
-
-
37949000693
-
-
note
-
In contrast to the treatment of race- and sex-based classifications under the Equal Protection Clause, federal courts do not currently apply heightened scrutiny to legislative classifications aimed at gays. The one appellate panel decision applying strict scrutiny to sexual orientation discrimination was vacated en bane. Watkins v. U.S. Army, 847 F.2d 1329,1352-53 (9th Cir. 1988) (holding unconstitutional the U.S. Army's exclusion of homosexuals), vacated en bane by 875 F.2d 699 (9th Cir. 1989). The Supreme Court has not decided the question whether gays are a suspect class under Equal Protection analysis or whether sexual orientation discrimination might properly be analyzed as a form of sex discrimination justifying intermediate scrutiny under Craig v. Boren, 429 U.S. 190, 199-210 (1976). In Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620, 626-36 (1996), the Court used rational basis scrutiny to invalidate a state constitutional amendment forbidding state and local officials from enacting or enforcing policies protecting gays from discrimination. Though Evans did not formally decide the level of scrutiny applicable to sexual orientation discrimination, it may suggest the Court will look especially closely at state action tar-geting gays, even if that close look comes under the guise of rational basis review. On the other hand, the unusual sweep of the law challenged in Evans may limit the holding to its facts.
-
-
-
-
50
-
-
37949020801
-
-
note
-
Justice Goldberg started to sketch a role for the Ninth Amendment in his concurring opinion in Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479, 486-99 (1965) (Goldberg, J., concurring). But the Court has done nothing with it.
-
-
-
-
51
-
-
37949048430
-
-
The Slaughter-House Cases, 83 U.S. (16 Wall.) 36, 78-83 (1872).
-
The Slaughter-House Cases, 83 U.S. (16 Wall.) 36, 78-83 (1872). Several valiant search parties have turned up little. See, e.g., JOHN HART ELY, DEMOCRACY AND DISTRUST 22-30, 98 (1980);
-
(1980)
Democracy and Distrust
, vol.22-30
, pp. 98
-
-
Ely, J.H.1
-
52
-
-
37949043283
-
The Privileges or Immunities Clause: "Its Hour Come Round at Last"?
-
Phillip B. Kurland, The Privileges or Immunities Clause: "Its Hour Come Round at Last"?, 1972 WASH. U. L.Q. 405, 405-20.
-
(1972)
WASH. U. L.Q.
, pp. 405
-
-
Kurland, P.B.1
-
53
-
-
37949023595
-
-
ESKRIDGE, supra note 42, at 101-04.
-
ESKRIDGE, supra note 42, at 101-04.
-
-
-
-
54
-
-
37949000468
-
-
Id.
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
55
-
-
37949005941
-
-
Id. at 104 (emphasis added).
-
Id. at 104 (emphasis added).
-
-
-
-
56
-
-
37949017193
-
-
See supra Part LA (discussing the history of the state-sponsored suppression of expressive associations).
-
See supra Part LA (discussing the history of the state-sponsored suppression of expressive associations).
-
-
-
-
57
-
-
37949002313
-
-
note
-
For an excellent discussion of the history of state regulation of gay associations, and the legal arguments gay advocates used in opposition to that regulation, see ESKRIDGE, supra note 42, at 44-46, 74-80, 93-95, 111-16; see also Brief Amicus Curiae of Gays and Lesbians for Individual Liberty In Support of Petitioners at 5-14, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000) (No. 99-699), available at 2000 WL 228588.
-
-
-
-
59
-
-
37949019689
-
-
Id.
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
60
-
-
37949057784
-
-
Id. at 385.
-
Id. at 385.
-
-
-
-
61
-
-
37949027320
-
-
M at 388.
-
M at 388.
-
-
-
-
62
-
-
37949000823
-
-
Id. at 387.
-
Id. at 387.
-
-
-
-
63
-
-
37949023037
-
-
Id.
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
64
-
-
37948999909
-
-
Id.
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
65
-
-
37948998525
-
-
Id. at 389.
-
Id. at 389.
-
-
-
-
66
-
-
37949005516
-
-
Id. at 390. Compare the BSA's professed need to exclude gays, discussed infra in Parts II.C.2 to II.C.4.
-
Id. at 390. Compare the BSA's professed need to exclude gays, discussed infra in Parts II.C.2 to II.C.4.
-
-
-
-
67
-
-
37949026518
-
-
KATZ, supra note 53, at 389.
-
KATZ, supra note 53, at 389.
-
-
-
-
68
-
-
37949038066
-
-
Id. at 391.
-
Id. at 391.
-
-
-
-
69
-
-
37949026082
-
-
Id. Compare Justice Stevens's misreading of the BSA's written materials, discussed infra in Part II.C.l.
-
Id. Compare Justice Stevens's misreading of the BSA's written materials, discussed infra in Part II.C.l.
-
-
-
-
70
-
-
37949036121
-
-
KATZ, supra note 53, at 391.
-
KATZ, supra note 53, at 391.
-
-
-
-
71
-
-
37949036424
-
-
Id. at 392-93.
-
Id. at 392-93.
-
-
-
-
72
-
-
37949028199
-
-
7dat393.
-
7dat393.
-
-
-
-
73
-
-
37949035051
-
-
Id.
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
74
-
-
84864895718
-
-
Id. at 392-93. Compare the Girl Scouts' decision, under pressure of litigation, to relieve girls of the duty to recite faith in "God" in the Girl Scout Oath. See infra note 166 and accompanying text.
-
Id. at 392-93. Compare the Girl Scouts' decision, under pressure of litigation, to relieve girls of the duty to recite faith in "God" in the Girl Scout Oath. See infra note 166 and accompanying text.
-
-
-
-
75
-
-
37949007396
-
-
ESKRIDGE, supra note 42, at 75.
-
ESKRIDGE, supra note 42, at 75.
-
-
-
-
76
-
-
37948999503
-
-
Mat76.
-
Mat76.
-
-
-
-
77
-
-
37949012322
-
-
Id. at 114.
-
Id. at 114.
-
-
-
-
78
-
-
37949035162
-
-
Id. at 114-15.
-
Id. at 114-15.
-
-
-
-
79
-
-
37949042347
-
-
note
-
Two cases of particular importance in this regard were Yates v. United States, 354 U.S. 298, 303-38 (1957) (reversing convictions of fourteen Communist Party members for conspiracy to violate the Smith Act), and NAACP v. Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 U.S. 449, 460-66 (1958) (protecting the NAACP's membership list from compelled disclosure).
-
-
-
-
80
-
-
37949014473
-
-
See, e.g., Aztec Motel v. State, 251 So. 2d 849, 854 (Fla. 1971); In re Gay Activists Alliance v. Lomenzo, 293 N.E.2d 255 (N.Y. 1973) (per curiam).
-
See, e.g., Aztec Motel v. State, 251 So. 2d 849, 854 (Fla. 1971); In re Gay Activists Alliance v. Lomenzo, 293 N.E.2d 255 (N.Y. 1973) (per curiam).
-
-
-
-
81
-
-
37949015218
-
-
Adolph Coors Co. v. Wallace, 570 F. Supp. 202, 207-10 (N.D. Gal. 1983) (denying discovery of gay group's membership list in civil litigation by Coors).
-
Adolph Coors Co. v. Wallace, 570 F. Supp. 202, 207-10 (N.D. Gal. 1983) (denying discovery of gay group's membership list in civil litigation by Coors).
-
-
-
-
82
-
-
37949054060
-
-
509 F.2d 652 (1st Cir. 1974). For a collection of cases, see ESKRIDGE, supra note 42, at 116 n.61.
-
509 F.2d 652 (1st Cir. 1974). For a collection of cases, see ESKRIDGE, supra note 42, at 116 n.61.
-
-
-
-
83
-
-
37949028810
-
-
Bonner, 509 F.2d at 660 (citing Patterson, 357 U.S. at 460).
-
Bonner, 509 F.2d at 660 (citing Patterson, 357 U.S. at 460).
-
-
-
-
84
-
-
37949038700
-
-
515 U.S. 819, 828-37 (1995).
-
515 U.S. 819, 828-37 (1995).
-
-
-
-
85
-
-
37949008589
-
-
Gay Lesbian Bisexual Alliance v. Pryor, 110 F.3d 1543, 1550 (llth Cir. 1997).
-
Gay Lesbian Bisexual Alliance v. Pryor, 110 F.3d 1543, 1550 (llth Cir. 1997).
-
-
-
-
86
-
-
84864901881
-
-
20 U.S.C. §4071 (1994).
-
20 U.S.C. §4071 (1994).
-
-
-
-
87
-
-
37949053398
-
-
Brief Amicus Curiae of Gays and Lesbians for Individual Liberty In Support of Petitioners at 13-14, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000) (No. 99-699), available at 2000 WL 228588.
-
Brief Amicus Curiae of Gays and Lesbians for Individual Liberty In Support of Petitioners at 13-14, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000) (No. 99-699), available at 2000 WL 228588.
-
-
-
-
88
-
-
37949025207
-
-
ESKRIDGE, supra note 42, at 116.
-
ESKRIDGE, supra note 42, at 116.
-
-
-
-
89
-
-
37949044891
-
-
Brief of Amicus Curiae PFLAG & GLSEN, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000) (No. 99-699), available at 2000 WL 339886.
-
Brief of Amicus Curiae PFLAG & GLSEN, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000) (No. 99-699), available at 2000 WL 339886.
-
-
-
-
90
-
-
37949051316
-
-
See supra note 2.
-
See supra note 2.
-
-
-
-
91
-
-
37949023933
-
Fear of a Gay School
-
Feb. 21
-
Harriet Barovick, Fear of a Gay School, TIME, Feb. 21,2000, at 52.
-
(2000)
Time
, pp. 52
-
-
Barovick, H.1
-
92
-
-
37949057639
-
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2447-50.
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2447-50.
-
-
-
-
93
-
-
84864905187
-
-
Title VII, Civil Rights Act of 1964, 42 U.S.C. §§2000e to 2000e-17 (1994).
-
Title VII, Civil Rights Act of 1964, 42 U.S.C. §§2000e to 2000e-17 (1994).
-
-
-
-
94
-
-
84864901878
-
-
See, e.g., MlNN. STAT. §363.03(3X2000).
-
See, e.g., MlNN. STAT. §363.03(3X2000).
-
-
-
-
95
-
-
37949013752
-
-
Henry Reeve trans., Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. (1835).
-
2 ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE, DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA 107 (Henry Reeve trans., Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1994) (1835).
-
(1994)
2 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America
, vol.107
-
-
-
96
-
-
37949004288
-
-
Id. at 106.
-
Id. at 106.
-
-
-
-
97
-
-
37949039040
-
-
See id at 107-08.
-
See id at 107-08.
-
-
-
-
98
-
-
37949009571
-
-
Id. at 106-10.
-
Id. at 106-10.
-
-
-
-
99
-
-
37949030833
-
-
note
-
See, e.g., N.Y. State Club Ass'n v. City of New York, 487 U.S. 1, 5-6 (1988) (quoting findings of New York City Council in support of expanded public accommodations law).
-
-
-
-
100
-
-
37949030328
-
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609 (1984).
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609 (1984).
-
-
-
-
101
-
-
37949053868
-
-
Bd. of Dirs. of Rotary Int'l v. Rotary Club, 481 U.S. 537 (1987).
-
Bd. of Dirs. of Rotary Int'l v. Rotary Club, 481 U.S. 537 (1987).
-
-
-
-
102
-
-
37949025070
-
-
Hunter, supra note 4, at 1630-34
-
Hunter, supra note 4, at 1630-34.
-
-
-
-
103
-
-
37949000780
-
-
note
-
Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446, 2459 (2000) (Stevens, J., dissenting) (calling the law "more expansive" than "most similar state statutes"). "Public accommodation," as defined by the New Jersey statute, includes more than fifty types of places. N.J. STAT. ANN. §10:5-5. The law covers places typically thought of as public accommodations like restaurants and retail shops. Id. But it also includes more intimate settings, like summer camps and roof gardens. Id. The New Jersey Supreme Court read the statute to include private membership organizations also. See Dale v. Boy Scouts of Am., 734 A.2d 1196,1219 (N.J. 1999), rev'd, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000).
-
-
-
-
104
-
-
37949011358
-
-
note
-
It might be argued that the citizenship model of anti-discrimination law does not impose state values on such groups, it merely encourages the adoption of these values. There is something to be said for this response, since even most advocates of the citizenship model presumably do not believe that anti-discrimination law should directly force a group to promulgate a particular message it disagrees with by, for example, requiring the group to amend its mission statement to reflect the policies of the anti-discrimination law. See, e.g., Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2472 (Stevens, J., dissenting). However, as I argue in Part II.C, regulation of a group's membership through anti-discrimination law is often a substantial imposition on the group's message. So membership regulation may accomplish indirectly what everyone agrees the state could not do directly: it changes an association's message in the direction the state desires. In this sense, membership regulation may be a proxy for content regulation, deserving the strictest First Amendment scrutiny. See infra Part III.B.2.
-
-
-
-
105
-
-
37949046867
-
-
Dale, 120 S.Ct. at 2456.
-
Dale, 120 S.Ct. at 2456.
-
-
-
-
106
-
-
37949027526
-
-
note
-
Id. at 2471 (Stevens, J., dissenting) ("Surely there are instances in which an organization that truly aims to foster a belief at odds with the purposes of a State's anti-discrimination laws will have a First Amendment right to association that precludes forced compliance with those laws.").
-
-
-
-
107
-
-
37949043496
-
-
Id. at 2451 (quoting Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 622 (1984)).
-
Id. at 2451 (quoting Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 622 (1984)).
-
-
-
-
108
-
-
37949030305
-
-
Id.
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
109
-
-
37949006074
-
-
Id.
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
110
-
-
37949011734
-
-
note
-
Though, as I argue in Part III, primarily commercial associations, even if expressive in some respects, do not enjoy a general exemption from compliance with anti-discrimination law.
-
-
-
-
111
-
-
37949045457
-
-
note
-
Even if a small bowling league or similar group is not an expressive association, it might qualify as an intimate association. Intimate associations are also constitutionally protected from anti-discrimination law. Roberts, 468 U.S. at 620 (status as protected intimate association depends on analysis of a group's "size, purpose, selectivity, congeniality, and other characteristics").
-
-
-
-
112
-
-
37949031675
-
-
See City of Dallas v. Stanglin, 490 U.S. 19, 20-21 (1989) (upholding the constitutionality of a city ordinance restricting age of patrons at a dance hall).
-
See City of Dallas v. Stanglin, 490 U.S. 19, 20-21 (1989) (upholding the constitutionality of a city ordinance restricting age of patrons at a dance hall).
-
-
-
-
113
-
-
37949008134
-
-
Id. at 25.
-
Id. at 25.
-
-
-
-
114
-
-
37949011499
-
-
note
-
For example, the Scout Oath teaches boys "[t]o help other people at all times" and to be "physically strong, mentally awake, and morally straight." Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2451-52.
-
-
-
-
115
-
-
37949041976
-
-
Id. at 2452.
-
Id. at 2452.
-
-
-
-
116
-
-
37949035972
-
-
Id.
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
117
-
-
37949038944
-
-
Id. at 2452-53.
-
Id. at 2452-53.
-
-
-
-
118
-
-
37949021278
-
-
note
-
Id. at 2453 ("We accept the Boy Scouts' assertion [contained in its brief to the Court]. \Ve need not inquire further to determine the nature of the Boy Scouts' expression with respect to homosexuality.").
-
-
-
-
119
-
-
37949011094
-
-
Id. (discussing internal policy statements and prior state court litigation by the BSA attempting to exclude gays).
-
Id. (discussing internal policy statements and prior state court litigation by the BSA attempting to exclude gays).
-
-
-
-
120
-
-
37949036219
-
-
Id. (quoting a 1978 position statement by the BSA President and the Chief Scout Executive to the Boy Scouts' Executive Committee).
-
Id. (quoting a 1978 position statement by the BSA President and the Chief Scout Executive to the Boy Scouts' Executive Committee).
-
-
-
-
121
-
-
37949031167
-
-
Id. (stating that the BSA's defense of its policy began in the 1980s and culminated in Curran v. Mount Diablo Council of Boy Scouts of Am., 952 P.2d 218 (Cal. 1998)).
-
Id. (stating that the BSA's defense of its policy began in the 1980s and culminated in Curran v. Mount Diablo Council of Boy Scouts of Am., 952 P.2d 218 (Cal. 1998)).
-
-
-
-
122
-
-
37949018788
-
-
note
-
Id. (emphasis added) (quoting a 1991 policy statement issued after Dale was terminated but before New Jersey amended its public accommodations law to prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation and before litigation commenced).
-
-
-
-
123
-
-
84864901879
-
-
"[W]e look to it [evidence of the BSA's view about homosexuality] as instructive, if only on the question of the sincerity of the professed beliefs." Id.
-
"[W]e look to it [evidence of the BSA's view about homosexuality] as instructive, if only on the question of the sincerity of the professed beliefs." Id.
-
-
-
-
124
-
-
37949035360
-
-
note
-
Thomas v. Review Bd., 450 U.S. 707, 716 (1981) (The narrow function of a reviewing court in this context is to determine whether there was an appropriate finding that petitioner... [had] an honest conviction that [compliance with state law] was forbidden by his religion."); Presbyterian Church v. Mary Elizabeth Blue Hull Memorial Presbyterian Church, 393 U.S. 440, 450 (1969) (stating that courts must not decide matters "at the very core of a religion-the interpretation of particular church doctrines and the importance of those doctrines to the religion").
-
-
-
-
125
-
-
37949029645
-
-
Thomas, 450 U.S. at 716.
-
Thomas, 450 U.S. at 716.
-
-
-
-
126
-
-
37949042791
-
-
To challenge the association's sincerity, it would not be enough to show the group had a different view on the issue in the past, since groups are free to change their messages.
-
To challenge the association's sincerity, it would not be enough to show the group had a different view on the issue in the past, since groups are free to change their messages.
-
-
-
-
127
-
-
37949001459
-
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2465 (Stevens, J., dissenting) (emphasis added).
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2465 (Stevens, J., dissenting) (emphasis added).
-
-
-
-
128
-
-
37949019474
-
-
See id. (Stevens, J., dissenting) (describing the BSA's inconsistent past statements regarding homosexuality).
-
See id. (Stevens, J., dissenting) (describing the BSA's inconsistent past statements regarding homosexuality).
-
-
-
-
129
-
-
37949055421
-
-
See id. (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
See id. (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
130
-
-
37949020387
-
-
See id. at 2460-66 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
See id. at 2460-66 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
131
-
-
37949008571
-
-
Id. at 2462 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
Id. at 2462 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
132
-
-
37949049126
-
-
Id. at 2452.
-
Id. at 2452.
-
-
-
-
133
-
-
37949040194
-
-
Id. at 2453.
-
Id. at 2453.
-
-
-
-
134
-
-
37949040544
-
-
note
-
Id. at 2454. A future litigant who was openly gay but not a "gay rights activist" might argue that Dale does not extend to him. It remains to be seen whether, in litigation claiming violation of an anti-discrimination law, the Court would permit the exclusion of someone who was known to be gay but was not politically active. That question is open after Dale. But the line between being "actively" openly gay (OK to exclude, after Dale) and "passively" openly gay (not OK to exclude) would be awfully hard to draw with precision or principle. For that reason alone, it is doubtful the Court will attempt it. Another question left open by Dale is whether its rationale would apply to the exclusion of an openly gay scout, rather than a scoutmaster. Scoutmasters have a much more important role in promulgating the BSA's moral views than do scouts themselves. Nevertheless, it doubtful the Court would draw the line here since many of the associational concerns implicated by the New Jersey law, discussed infra Part II.C, apply to the forced inclusion of openly gay scouts.
-
-
-
-
135
-
-
37949026920
-
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2454 (emphasis added).
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2454 (emphasis added).
-
-
-
-
136
-
-
37949044297
-
-
515 U.S. 557, 574-75 (1995).
-
515 U.S. 557, 574-75 (1995).
-
-
-
-
137
-
-
37949012540
-
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2470 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2470 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
138
-
-
37949024683
-
-
Id. at 2475 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
Id. at 2475 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
139
-
-
37949031809
-
-
note
-
See id. at 2470 (Stevens, J., dissenting) (stating that the BSA's mission statement, federal charter, official membership policy, Scout Oath, and law are all "devoid of any view on the topic [of homosexuality]").
-
-
-
-
140
-
-
37949020241
-
-
See id. at 2472 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
See id. at 2472 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
141
-
-
37949004218
-
-
See id. at 2476-77 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
See id. at 2476-77 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
142
-
-
37949054413
-
-
Id. at 2470 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
Id. at 2470 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
143
-
-
37949037258
-
The Class of '61
-
Address at Fiftieth Anniversary of Graduation, June 28, (Richard Posner ed., 1992).
-
"Life is painting a picture, not doing a sum." Oliver Wendell Holmes, Address at Fiftieth Anniversary of Graduation, The Class of '61 (June 28, 1911), in THE ESSENTIAL HOLMES 94 (Richard Posner ed., 1992).
-
(1911)
THE Essential Holmes
, vol.94
-
-
Holmes, O.W.1
-
144
-
-
37949057723
-
-
The dissent cites no authority for its clarity standard, which appears to have been concocted for this case.
-
The dissent cites no authority for its clarity standard, which appears to have been concocted for this case.
-
-
-
-
145
-
-
37949032834
-
-
See Tinker v. Des Moines Indep. Cmty. Sch. Dist., 393 U.S. 503, 504 (1969).
-
See Tinker v. Des Moines Indep. Cmty. Sch. Dist., 393 U.S. 503, 504 (1969).
-
-
-
-
146
-
-
37949056792
-
-
See Stromberg v. California, 283 U.S. 359, 369 (1931).
-
See Stromberg v. California, 283 U.S. 359, 369 (1931).
-
-
-
-
147
-
-
37949022508
-
-
Hurley v. Irish-Am. Gay, Lesbian & Bisexual Group, 515 U.S. 557, 569 (1995) (citation omitted).
-
Hurley v. Irish-Am. Gay, Lesbian & Bisexual Group, 515 U.S. 557, 569 (1995) (citation omitted).
-
-
-
-
148
-
-
37949012152
-
-
note
-
Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446, 2462 (2000) (Stevens, J., dissenting) ("In light of BSA's self-proclaimed ecumenism ... it is even more difficult to discern any shared goals or common moral stance on homosexuality.").
-
-
-
-
149
-
-
84864905499
-
-
Id. at 2463 (Stevens, J., dissenting) ("But when the entire 1978 letter is read, BSA's position is far more equivocal....").
-
Id. at 2463 (Stevens, J., dissenting) ("But when the entire 1978 letter is read, BSA's position is far more equivocal....").
-
-
-
-
150
-
-
37949017227
-
-
note
-
Id. (Stevens, J., dissenting) ("[I]t is apparent that the draftsmen of the [1978] policy statement foresaw the possibility that laws against discrimination might one day be amended to protect homosexuals from employment discrimination.").
-
-
-
-
151
-
-
37949047565
-
-
note
-
Id. at 2463-64 (Stevens, J., dissenting) (noting that the 1978 policy statement excluding homosexuals from the BSA "clearly provided that, in the event such a law conflicted with their policy, a Scout's duty to be 'obedient' andobe[y] the laws,' even if "he thinks [the laws] are unfair' would prevail in such a contingency").
-
-
-
-
152
-
-
37949011443
-
-
note
-
Id. at 2465 (Stevens, J., dissenting) ("[W]hile the 1991 and 1992 statements tried to tie BSA's exclusionary policy to the meaning of the Scout Oath and Law, the 1993 statement abandoned that effort.").
-
-
-
-
153
-
-
37949048906
-
-
Id. at 2461 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
Id. at 2461 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
154
-
-
37949046168
-
-
Id. (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
Id. (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
155
-
-
37949037723
-
-
Id. (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
Id. (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
156
-
-
37949037078
-
-
HOUSTON ClIRON., May 31
-
A majority of Americans still believe homosexual conduct is morally wrong. Carey Goldberg, Tolerance for Gays Up, Study Says, HOUSTON ClIRON., May 31, 1998, at A4 (noting that although disapproval of homosexuality had dropped nearly 20% since its peak in the 1980s, a 1996 study still showed a 56% disapproval rate).
-
(1998)
Tolerance for Gays Up, Study Says
-
-
Goldberg, C.1
-
157
-
-
37949021966
-
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2464 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2464 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
158
-
-
37949001872
-
-
Id. (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
Id. (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
159
-
-
37949004695
-
-
Id. at 2463 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
Id. at 2463 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
160
-
-
37949045397
-
-
Id. (Stevens, J., dissenting) (emphasis omitted).
-
Id. (Stevens, J., dissenting) (emphasis omitted).
-
-
-
-
161
-
-
0346515486
-
An Economic Approach to the Law of Evidence
-
(describing confirmation bias).
-
See Richard A. Posner, An Economic Approach to the Law of Evidence, 51 STAN. L. REV. 1477,1495 (1999) (describing confirmation bias).
-
(1999)
Stan. L. Rev.
, vol.51
, pp. 1477
-
-
Posner, A.1
-
162
-
-
37949032689
-
-
note
-
Cf. United States v. Ballard, 322 U.S. 78, 87 (1944) ("If one could be sent to jail because a jury in a hostile environment found those [religious] teachings false, little indeed would be left of religious freedom.").
-
-
-
-
163
-
-
37949039829
-
-
note
-
By "dissident group" I mean not just groups that are generally unpopular, like the CPUSA in the 1950s, but also generally-approved groups that have some controversial views. The BSA clearly fits in the latter category, not the former. Similarly, the Catholic Church, while powerful and influential generally, is a "dissident" group in its opposition to the use of contraceptives.
-
-
-
-
164
-
-
37949055363
-
-
note
-
Of course, this skewing problem will be present in every approach since only groups alleged to run afoul of anti-discrimination law will be sued.
-
-
-
-
165
-
-
37949038481
-
-
note
-
Reply Brief for Petitioners at 4, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000) (No. 99-699), available at 2000 WL 432367.
-
-
-
-
166
-
-
37949028869
-
-
note
-
Among other objections, the dissent complains that the 1978 BSA policy statement on gays was never publicly promulgated. Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2463 (Stevens, L, dissenting).
-
-
-
-
167
-
-
37949037307
-
-
note
-
There are indications of such a bias against the BSA's views in Justice Stevens's own dissent. Id. at 2477 (Stevens, J., dissenting) (describing "unfavorable opinions about homosexuals" as "atavistic" and as "prejudices" that "have caused serious and tangible harm"). I share Justice Stevens's discomfort with the BSA's views about homosexuality, which is all the more reason people like us should not be reviewing them.
-
-
-
-
168
-
-
37949018340
-
-
See supra Part I.A.
-
See supra Part I.A.
-
-
-
-
169
-
-
37949055047
-
-
note
-
There will, of course, be litigation costs associated with the tripartite approach suggested in Part III. But under the tripartite approach these costs are less likely to be borne by the groups least equipped to bear themexpressive associations-and most likely to be borne by the groups more equipped to bear them-commercial and quasi-expressive associations. See supra text accompanying notes 327-28; cf. Va. State Bd. of Pharmacy v. Va. Citizens Consumer Council, Inc., 425 U.S. 748, 772 n.24 (1976) (noting that commercial speech is more "hardy" than non-commercial speech). This is because expressive associations are almost absolutely protected from antidiscrimination under the tripartite approach and will need only litigate the issue of their proper categorization as expressive. Further, as I argue in Part III.B.4, the tripartite approach is more likely to settle into familiar and predictable rules over time than is a message-based approach, diminishing the need for litigation and allowing associations to adjust their behavior according to their principal interests, whether expressive or commercial.
-
-
-
-
170
-
-
37949053757
-
-
note
-
The dissent ignores the BSA's prior litigation defending its gay exclusion. Apparently, for the dissent, advocacy in court is not a way of speaking. Yet it is clear that litigation in defense of one's beliefs is a "modeO of expression and association protected by the First [Amendment]." NAACP v. Button, 371 U.S. 415, 428-29 (1963) (upholding, against state anti-solicitation law, the NAACP's right to solicit clients for civil rights lawsuits).
-
-
-
-
171
-
-
37949022563
-
-
note
-
Reply Brief for Petitioners at n.4, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000) (No. 99-699), available at 2000 WL 432367.
-
-
-
-
172
-
-
37949010424
-
-
note
-
See supra text accompanying notes 327-28. It cannot be maintained that the BSA itself, however, was poor in economic and human resources. The poult is that many expressive associations fighting anti-discrimination law will be poor in these resources.
-
-
-
-
173
-
-
37949048396
-
-
See supra Part I.B.I (recounting experience of the Chicago Society for Human Rights).
-
See supra Part I.B.I (recounting experience of the Chicago Society for Human Rights).
-
-
-
-
174
-
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37949016177
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-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2474 (Stevens, L, dissenting).
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2474 (Stevens, L, dissenting).
-
-
-
-
175
-
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37949055720
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note
-
Brief for Respondent at 31-32, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000) (No. 99-699), available at 2000 WL 340276.
-
-
-
-
176
-
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37949030040
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note
-
Roberts is consistent with this view. The Jaycees wanted to exclude women as full voting members but had invited women to participate in much of the group's training and community activities. Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 621 (1984). For that reason, the Court said the Jaycees' claim that full membership for women would "impair a symbolic message" conveyed by the exclusionary policy "is attenuated at best." Id. at 627. By contrast, the BSA does not allow openly gay people to participate in any aspect of membership. The BSA's exclusionary policy, because it is more complete, is also more expressive and more likely to be impaired by forced association than was the Jaycees' policy.
-
-
-
-
177
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37949002488
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note
-
Brief Amicus Curiae of Gays and Lesbians for Individual Liberty In Support of Petitioners at 25, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000) (No. 99-699), available at 2000 WL 228588.
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178
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37949022274
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See infra Part III.
-
See infra Part III.
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179
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37949027735
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note
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It is true, of course, that some people can "pass" as a member of another race, requiring some affirmative "coming out" by them analogous to a gay person's coming out. But this is the exception in the case of race; it is the rule for gay people.
-
-
-
-
180
-
-
0347213332
-
Identity, Speech, and Equality
-
(emphasis added).
-
Nan D. Hunter, Identity, Speech, and Equality, 79 VA. L. REV. 1695, 1696 (1993) (emphasis added).
-
(1993)
VA. L. Rev.
, vol.79
, pp. 1695
-
-
Hunter, N.D.1
-
181
-
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37949001886
-
-
(unpublished manuscript, on file with author)
-
But see James P. Madigan, Questioning the Coercive Effect of Self-Identifying Speech 59 (unpublished manuscript, on file with author) (criticizing Hunter's identity argument: "Nan Hunter does not get to decide what any and every gay person means when he or she selfidentifies."). While I agree with Madigan's claim that self-identifying as gay does not necessarily imply adherence to a particular ideological agenda, see id. at 6, I think he misses the widely shared social understanding of what one says by being out. Even if a particular out gay person does not intend to send a gay-affirming message by being out, his self-identification will often be understood by others that way. This message is "received" even if not "sent," and it is a message an expressive association should be able to avoid. Further, even if the precise message sent by coming out varies from person to person, there is no doubt that some message is sent. The claim for associational freedom is an effort by the group (in this case, the BSA) to avoid being associated with any message tied to coming out.
-
Questioning the Coercive Effect of Self-Identifying Speech
, vol.59
-
-
Madigan, J.P.1
-
182
-
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0041107413
-
From Hand-Holding to Sodomy: First Amendment Protection of Homosexual (Expressive) Conduct
-
David Cole & William N. Eskridge, Jr., From Hand-Holding to Sodomy: First Amendment Protection of Homosexual (Expressive) Conduct, 29 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 319, 321-22,325, 337 (1993).
-
(1993)
Harv. C.R.-C.L. L. Rev.
, vol.29
, pp. 319
-
-
Cole, D.1
Eskridge Jr., W.N.2
-
183
-
-
37949036437
-
-
note
-
See, e.g., Gay Law Students Ass'n v. Pacific Tel. & Tel. Co., 595 P.2d 592, 610 (Cal. 1979) (interpreting a provision of state labor code prohibiting discrimination based on employees' "political activity" to protect openly gay people from discrimination).
-
-
-
-
184
-
-
37949015240
-
-
note
-
Weaver v. Nebo Sch. Dist., 29 F. Supp. 2d 1279, 1288-89 (D. Utah 1998) (stating that the removal of a public high school teacher for acknowledging her homosexuality violated the First Amendment).
-
-
-
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185
-
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37949050445
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-
note
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Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446, 2472 (2000) (Stevens, J., dissenting) (agreeing that Dale has no right to advocate gay civil rights "when he is working as a Scoutmaster," and "BSA cannot be compelled to include a message about homosexuality" if it prefers to remain silent).
-
-
-
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186
-
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37949043771
-
-
note
-
GILL FOUNDATION, Our AND INTO THE VOTING BOOTH: LESBIAN, GAY, BISEXUAL & TRANSCENDER VOTERS IN 2000, at 27 (on file with author) [hereinafter OUT AND INTO THE VOTING BOOTH]. Interestingly, public support for gay equality among both familiar and non-familiar voters is highest in areas related to crime prevention and job protection. That support declines as the issues move closer to family life and especially to child-rearing. This finding supports the notion that the BSA faced a serious backlash among its members if it had been forced to admit openly gay scoutmasters. See infra Part II.C.4.
-
-
-
-
187
-
-
37949013050
-
-
note
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OUT AND INTO THE VOTING BOOTH, supra note 180, at 52.
-
-
-
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188
-
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37949010607
-
-
Id. at 53.
-
Id. at 53.
-
-
-
-
189
-
-
37949044656
-
-
Dale, 120 S.Ct. at 2478 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
Dale, 120 S.Ct. at 2478 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
190
-
-
37949017384
-
-
note
-
I appreciate the counterargument that a straight person arguing for gay equality might be viewed as having more credibility on the subject than a gay person making similar arguments because the gay person speaks out of self-interest. Hunter, supra note 4, at 1602. In some contexts that is certainly a persuasive argument. However, it is not persuasive in the case of scoutmasters whose actual statements to the boys, all concede, may be freely silenced by the BSA. Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2472 (Stevens, J., dissenting) ("Dale's right to advocate certain beliefs in a public forum or in a private debate does not include a right to advocate these ideas when he is working as a Scoutmaster."). The choice in the context of the BSA, then, is between the message sent by the presence of a muzzled but gay-friendly straight person and the message sent by the presence of a muzzled but openly gay person. I cannot believe anyone would doubt in this context that the stronger message of gay-affirmation is sent by the openly gay person; indeed, it is hard to understand how the muzzled straight scoutmaster sends any message at all. That is presumably why the BSA considers it safe to include a muzzled (pro-gay) straight scoutmaster but not a muzzled openly gay scoutmaster.
-
-
-
-
191
-
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37949033394
-
-
note
-
A prominent gay-rights organization, the Gay & Lesbian Victory Fund, is devoted entirely to electing openly gay people of either major party to public office.
-
-
-
-
192
-
-
37949017441
-
-
note
-
Justice Stevens himself has recognized the importance of this difference in the area of race. See Wygant v. Jackson Bd. of Educ., 476 U.S. 267, 315 (1986) (Stevens, J., dissenting) ("It is one thing for a white child to be taught by a white teacher that color, like beauty, is only 'skin deep'; it is far more convincing to experience that truth [through the presence of racial diversity among teachers] on a day-to-day basis during the entire, ongoing learning process."). :
-
-
-
-
193
-
-
37949028786
-
-
note
-
Cf. Presbyterian Church v. Mary Elizabeth Blue Hull Memorial Presbyterian Church, 393 U.S. 440, 450 (1969) (stating that courts should not scrutinize "the interpretation of particular church doctrines [or] the importance of those doctrines to the religion").
-
-
-
-
194
-
-
37949052497
-
-
note
-
See West Virginia v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624, 642 (1943) (holding that requiring a student member of Jehovah's Witnesses to recite the Pledge of Allegiance is unconstitutional).
-
-
-
-
195
-
-
37949008696
-
-
note
-
"In short, Boy Scouts of America is simply silent on homosexuality." Dale, 120 S.Ct. at 2470 (Stevens, J., dissenting). Even if this claim is an exaggeration, at the very least it is true the BSA does not want scoutmasters teaching the boys anything directly about sexuality. The topic is to be avoided, if possible, and boys are steered to other sources for counseling about it. Id.
-
-
-
-
196
-
-
84864902255
-
-
National Stonewall Democrats, Feb. 16
-
"[W]e learned long ago ... that 'silence = death." In politics, 'silence = zero progress.'" Michael Colby, Voting Booths, Yes. Closets, No. Silence, Never., National Stonewall Democrats, at http://stonewaHdemocrats.org/press/ press88.htm (Feb. 16, 2001).
-
(2001)
Voting Booths, Yes. Closets, No. Silence, Never.
-
-
Colby, M.1
-
197
-
-
37949022670
-
-
See Colin Spencer, HOMOSEXUALITY IN HISTORY 285 (1995) (quoting Wilde's statement at his 1890s sodomy trial). Actually, Wilde was speaking about affection between men and boys. But it has come to be understood as a comment about homosexuality.
-
(1995)
Homosexuality in History
, vol.285
-
-
Spencer, C.1
-
198
-
-
37949042450
-
-
note
-
See Barnette, 319 U.S. at 642 (holding that a flag salute requirement was unconstitutional as applied to schoolchildren members of Jehovah's Witnesses).
-
-
-
-
199
-
-
37949039465
-
-
note
-
Brief for Petitioners at 38, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000) (No. 99-699), available at 2000 WL 228616.
-
-
-
-
200
-
-
37949053882
-
-
note
-
Cole & Eskridge, supra note 176, at 327 ("The First Amendment protects the individual's freedom to explore, develop, and expand upon her identity.").
-
-
-
-
201
-
-
37949023861
-
-
note
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2471 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
202
-
-
37949008595
-
-
See NAACP v. Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 U.S. 449 (1958).
-
See NAACP v. Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 U.S. 449 (1958).
-
-
-
-
203
-
-
37949013031
-
-
Id. at 453.
-
Id. at 453.
-
-
-
-
204
-
-
37949010040
-
-
Id. at 461 (citations omitted).
-
Id. at 461 (citations omitted).
-
-
-
-
205
-
-
37949023205
-
-
Id at 462-63.
-
Id at 462-63.
-
-
-
-
206
-
-
37949050832
-
-
Id. at 463.
-
Id. at 463.
-
-
-
-
207
-
-
37949011369
-
-
Id.
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
208
-
-
37949000015
-
-
Id. at 463-64.
-
Id. at 463-64.
-
-
-
-
209
-
-
37949006058
-
-
note
-
See Gibson v. Fla. Legislative Investigation Comm'n, 372 U.S. 539 (1963) (protecting the identity of members and contributors to NAACP); Louisiana v. NAACP, 366 U.S. 293, 295-96 (1961) (noting that members feared reprisals and hostilities after disclosure); Bates v. City of Little Rock, 361 U.S. 516, 524 (1960) (stating that members feared harassment and threats of harm after disclosure); Adolph Coors Co. v. Wallace, 570 F. Supp. 202, 207-08 (N.D. Cal. 1983) (denying discovery of gay group's membership list in civil litigation by Coors); see also Shelton v. Tucker, 364 U.S. 479, 485-86 (1960) (protecting teacher's associational right not to be forced to disclose his every associational tie). Note that this principle of associational membership privacy does not exempt public corporations from divulging the identity of large shareholders. Indeed, large shareholders in such corporations are required to make filings with the Securities Exchange Commission.
-
-
-
-
210
-
-
37949013517
-
-
note
-
Brown v. Socialist Workers '74 Campaign Comm., 459 U.S. 87, 101 (1982) (holding that a political party was entitled to exemption from compelled disclosure of campaign contributors and expenditures because of a "reasonable probability of threats, harassment, or reprisals" against the group's members).
-
-
-
-
211
-
-
37949044120
-
-
Gibson, 372 U.S. at 556-57.
-
Gibson, 372 U.S. at 556-57.
-
-
-
-
212
-
-
37949033996
-
-
Adolph Coors Co., 570 F. Supp. at 207-08.
-
Adolph Coors Co., 570 F. Supp. at 207-08.
-
-
-
-
213
-
-
84864909326
-
-
FORT LAUDERDALE SUN-SENTINEL, Feb. 9, at Al, available at LEXIS, News Library, News Group File
-
Brittany Wallman, "Straight" Player Limit Divides Gay Softball, FORT LAUDERDALE SUN-SENTINEL, Feb. 9, 2001, at Al, available at LEXIS, News Library, News Group File.
-
(2001)
Straight" Player Limit Divides Gay Softball
-
-
Wallman, B.1
-
214
-
-
37949013943
-
-
See supra Part I.E.
-
See supra Part I.E.
-
-
-
-
215
-
-
37949024959
-
-
note
-
One might ask why the expressive association should need to make a record of this danger at all. It should be enough, on this view, for the association to assert the existence of the danger. The response is that the organizational-necessity aspect of associational freedom discussed here is not directly tied to the First Amendment interest in protecting speech; it is purely instrumental. It is appropriate, on the other hand, to defer to the association's assertions in the message and impairment analysis discussed above because those assertions are directly related to the content of the group's message and thus to the protection of speech itself.
-
-
-
-
216
-
-
37949024336
-
-
NAACP v. Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 U.S. 449, 462-63 (1958).
-
NAACP v. Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 U.S. 449, 462-63 (1958).
-
-
-
-
217
-
-
37949030744
-
-
Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446,2453 (2000).
-
Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446,2453 (2000).
-
-
-
-
218
-
-
37949027275
-
-
Brief of Amicus Curiae National Catholic Committee on Scouting et al., In Support of Petitioners at 25, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000) (No. 99-699), available at 2000 WL 235234
-
Brief of Amicus Curiae National Catholic Committee on Scouting et al., In Support of Petitioners at 25, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000) (No. 99-699), available at 2000 WL 235234.
-
-
-
-
219
-
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84864901667
-
I think the organization has in essence been hijacked by one faction of its members
-
TlIE GAY AND LESBIAN REV., Jan.-Feb. at 15-16
-
Counsel for Dale came close to acknowledging this point after the decision: "I think the organization has in essence been hijacked by one faction of its members." Why the Boy Scouts Case Went Down: An Interview with the Lawyer Who Argued the Supreme Court Case, TlIE GAY AND LESBIAN REV., Jan.-Feb. 2001, at 15-16, available at http-yAvww.glereview.com.
-
(2001)
Why the Boy Scouts Case Went Down: An Interview with the Lawyer Who Argued the Supreme Court Case
-
-
-
220
-
-
37949053908
-
-
See Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2453. This is the only parent-related point the BSA explicitly cited as a reason for its exclusion of openly gay scoutmasters.
-
See Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2453. This is the only parent-related point the BSA explicitly cited as a reason for its exclusion of openly gay scoutmasters.
-
-
-
-
221
-
-
37949017303
-
-
There is no evidence that children are recruited into homosexuality. See RICHARD A. POSNER, SEX AND REASON 296-99,403 (1992).
-
(1992)
Sex and Reason
, vol.296
, Issue.99
, pp. 403
-
-
Posner, R.A.1
-
222
-
-
37949033015
-
-
Homosexuals are no more likely to molest children than heterosexuals. See ESKRIDGE, supra note 42, at 214.
-
Homosexuals are no more likely to molest children than heterosexuals. See ESKRIDGE, supra note 42, at 214.
-
-
-
-
223
-
-
84864900625
-
-
DALLAS MORNING NEWS, Feb. 25, at 29A
-
On the other hand, it may not be true that admitting openly gay scoutmasters would cost the BSA more members than excluding them has. In the wake of Dale, the BSA has endured a ferocious backlash from funding sources, including other private organizations and local governments, and from parents who do not want their children associated with an organization that discriminates against gays. "Unfortunately, we're in a period where Scout numbers are suffering across the country from the national publicity [after Dale]," said the president of the large Dallas BSA council. Todd Bensman, Boy Scouts'Rolls Decline By 25%, DALLAS MORNING NEWS, Feb. 25, 2001, at 29A, available at http://www.dallasnews.com/metro/296568_boyscouts_ 25me.html. National BSA officials deny a drop in membership. See id. Even if Scouting rolls have dropped in the wake of Dale, however, it is conceivable they would have dropped even more if the BSA had lost in Dale. This no-win predicament may be just the problem the BSA hoped to avoid by not publicly highlighting its gay exclusion in the first place.
-
(2001)
Boy Scouts'Rolls Decline by 25%
-
-
Bensman, T.1
-
224
-
-
37949015138
-
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 623 (1984).
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 623 (1984).
-
-
-
-
225
-
-
37949052383
-
-
NAACP v. Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 U.S. 449, 462-63 (1958).
-
NAACP v. Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 U.S. 449, 462-63 (1958).
-
-
-
-
226
-
-
37949030607
-
-
See Roberts, 468 U.S. at 628-29.
-
See Roberts, 468 U.S. at 628-29.
-
-
-
-
227
-
-
37949014456
-
-
note
-
Id. at 623. The Court continued to follow, at least formally, this compelling-interests test in Dale. However, it deferred on the existence and meaning of the BSA's message, deferred on the impact of the regulation on that message, and devoted only one sentence to dismissing New Jersey's interest in the regulation. See Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446,2457 (2000).
-
-
-
-
228
-
-
37948998689
-
-
Roberts, 468 U.S. at 626.
-
Roberts, 468 U.S. at 626.
-
-
-
-
229
-
-
37949057441
-
-
note
-
Id. at 632 (O'Connor, J., concurring). Note that Justice Kennedy joined a similar concurrence by Justice O'Connor in New York State Club Ass'n v. City of New York, 487 U.S. 1, 20 (1988) (O'Connor, J., concurring) ("Predominately commercial organizations are not entitled to claim a First Amendment associational or expressive right to be free from the antidiscrimination provisions triggered by the law."). Therefore, two of the five members of the Dale majority have explicitly adopted the commercialexpressive association distinction.
-
-
-
-
230
-
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37948999225
-
-
Roberts, 468 U.S. at 632 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
Roberts, 468 U.S. at 632 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
231
-
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37949037083
-
-
Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
232
-
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37949053244
-
-
Id. at 633 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
Id. at 633 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
233
-
-
37949031867
-
-
note
-
Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring). The selection of members is inherently tied to the promulgation of an expressive association's message. The state will almost never have an interest sufficiently compelling to overcome the association's interest in defining that message. Other activities of an expressive association, however, may be subject to a different calculus where the state's interest in the regulation is much greater. A street gang (even if such a group could properly be characterized as expressive) that wanted to express its dislike for blacks by physically attacking them could not claim an exemption from laws prohibiting assault.
-
-
-
-
234
-
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37949055909
-
-
Id. at 635 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
Id. at 635 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
235
-
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37949041921
-
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Id. at 634-35 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
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Id. at 634-35 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
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236
-
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37949031736
-
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Id. at 635 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
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Id. at 635 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
237
-
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37949050642
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Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring).
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Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
238
-
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37949033692
-
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Id. at 636 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
Id. at 636 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
239
-
-
0042342013
-
-
Here are three examples of what I mean. First, as a general matter, since the demise of Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905), the Court has reviewed economic regulation very deferentially, asking only whether the restriction is rational. State regulation of non-economic personal liberties, like using contraceptives, gets a much more hostile judicial reception. See Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479, 493 (1965). Second, the Fourth Amendment's search-and-seizure provision generally requires less justification for searching a business than for searching a private home. See generally WAYNE R. LAFAVE, SEARCH AND SEIZURE: A TREATISE ON THE FOURTH AMENDMENT § 10.2 (3d ed. 1996). Third, the Fifth Amendment's guarantee against selfincrimination applies to individuals in their personal capacity but not to corporations or to corporate officers. I want to thank Don Dripps for pointing out these examples.
-
(1996)
Search and Seizure: A treatise on the Fourth Amendment § 10.2 3d Ed.
-
-
Lafave, W.R.1
-
240
-
-
37949002417
-
-
NAACP v. Claiborne Hardware Co., 458 U.S. 886, 907 (1982).
-
NAACP v. Claiborne Hardware Co., 458 U.S. 886, 907 (1982).
-
-
-
-
241
-
-
37949022888
-
-
Allied Tube & Conduit Corp. v. Indian Head, Inc., 486 U.S. 492, 50407 (1988).
-
Allied Tube & Conduit Corp. v. Indian Head, Inc., 486 U.S. 492, 50407 (1988).
-
-
-
-
242
-
-
37949052315
-
-
Claiborne, 458 U.S. at 913 (emphasis added).
-
Claiborne, 458 U.S. at 913 (emphasis added).
-
-
-
-
243
-
-
37949036404
-
-
In re Primus, 436 U.S. 412 , 415-17 (1978).
-
In re Primus, 436 U.S. 412 , 415-17 (1978).
-
-
-
-
244
-
-
37949051137
-
-
Id. at 428 (emphasis added) (quoting NAACP v. Button, 371 U.S. 415, 429, 431 (1963)).
-
Id. at 428 (emphasis added) (quoting NAACP v. Button, 371 U.S. 415, 429, 431 (1963)).
-
-
-
-
245
-
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37949052559
-
-
Id. at 432 (quoting Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 45 (1976)).
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Id. at 432 (quoting Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 45 (1976)).
-
-
-
-
246
-
-
37949050743
-
-
Ohralik v. Ohio State Bar Ass'n, 436 U.S. 447,467 (1978).
-
Ohralik v. Ohio State Bar Ass'n, 436 U.S. 447,467 (1978).
-
-
-
-
247
-
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37949035895
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-
Id. at 458 (citing Button, 371 U.S. at 442).
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Id. at 458 (citing Button, 371 U.S. at 442).
-
-
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248
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37949021837
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Id. at 459.
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Id. at 459.
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249
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37949001491
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Id. at 456.
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Id. at 456.
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250
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-
37949027676
-
-
I want to thank Jim Chen for highlighting some of these differences.
-
I want to thank Jim Chen for highlighting some of these differences.
-
-
-
-
251
-
-
37949003806
-
-
See R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, 505 U.S. 377, 395 (1992).
-
See R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, 505 U.S. 377, 395 (1992).
-
-
-
-
252
-
-
37949047097
-
-
See Central Hudson Gas & Elec. Corp. v. Pub. Serv. Comm'n, 447 U.S. 557, 564 (1980).
-
See Central Hudson Gas & Elec. Corp. v. Pub. Serv. Comm'n, 447 U.S. 557, 564 (1980).
-
-
-
-
253
-
-
37949052204
-
-
Schaumberg v. Citizens for a Better Env't, 444 U.S. 620, 632 (1980).
-
Schaumberg v. Citizens for a Better Env't, 444 U.S. 620, 632 (1980).
-
-
-
-
254
-
-
37949045422
-
-
N.Y. Times Co. v. United States, 403 U.S. 713, 714 (1973) (per curiam).
-
N.Y. Times Co. v. United States, 403 U.S. 713, 714 (1973) (per curiam).
-
-
-
-
255
-
-
37949037225
-
-
See Va. State Bd. of Pharmacy v. Va. Citizens Consumer Council, Inc., 425 U.S. 748, 772 n.24 (1976).
-
See Va. State Bd. of Pharmacy v. Va. Citizens Consumer Council, Inc., 425 U.S. 748, 772 n.24 (1976).
-
-
-
-
256
-
-
37949012421
-
-
See Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444, 447-48 (1969).
-
See Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444, 447-48 (1969).
-
-
-
-
257
-
-
84864901870
-
-
See Hoffman Estates v. Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc., 455 U.S. 489, 496 (1982) (holding that the "government may regulate or ban entirely" commercial speech "proposing an illegal transaction").
-
See Hoffman Estates v. Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc., 455 U.S. 489, 496 (1982) (holding that the "government may regulate or ban entirely" commercial speech "proposing an illegal transaction").
-
-
-
-
258
-
-
37949010094
-
-
See Gooding v. Wilson, 405 U.S. 518,521 (1972).
-
See Gooding v. Wilson, 405 U.S. 518,521 (1972).
-
-
-
-
259
-
-
37949025202
-
-
See Bates v. State Bar, 433 U.S. 350, 381 (1977).
-
See Bates v. State Bar, 433 U.S. 350, 381 (1977).
-
-
-
-
260
-
-
37949002643
-
-
See Erznoznik v. Jacksonville, 422 U.S. 205 (1975).
-
See Erznoznik v. Jacksonville, 422 U.S. 205 (1975).
-
-
-
-
261
-
-
37949028585
-
-
See Bd. of Trustees v. Fox, 492 U.S. 469, 477-78 (1989).
-
See Bd. of Trustees v. Fox, 492 U.S. 469, 477-78 (1989).
-
-
-
-
262
-
-
37949038814
-
-
See W. Va. State Bd. of Educ. v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624, 639 (1943).
-
See W. Va. State Bd. of Educ. v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624, 639 (1943).
-
-
-
-
263
-
-
37949028865
-
-
See Glickman v. Wileman Bros. & Elliott, Inc., 521 U.S. 457, 470-71 (1997).
-
See Glickman v. Wileman Bros. & Elliott, Inc., 521 U.S. 457, 470-71 (1997).
-
-
-
-
264
-
-
37949023948
-
-
See FEG v. Nat'1 Conservative PAC, 470 U.S. 480 (1985) (holding unconstitutional limits on political action committee spending); Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976) (holding unconstitutional limits on campaign expenditures, independent expenditures, and individual candidates' expenditures).
-
See FEG v. Nat'1 Conservative PAC, 470 U.S. 480 (1985) (holding unconstitutional limits on political action committee spending); Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976) (holding unconstitutional limits on campaign expenditures, independent expenditures, and individual candidates' expenditures).
-
-
-
-
265
-
-
84864905181
-
-
See Austin v. Mich. State Chamber of Commerce, 494 U.S. 652, 658 (1990) (upholding state restriction on corporate independent campaign expenditures, emphasizing the "unique legal and economic characteristics of corporations").
-
See Austin v. Mich. State Chamber of Commerce, 494 U.S. 652, 658 (1990) (upholding state restriction on corporate independent campaign expenditures, emphasizing the "unique legal and economic characteristics of corporations").
-
-
-
-
266
-
-
37949016316
-
-
FEC v. Mass. Citizens for Life, Inc., 479 U.S. 238, 263 (1986).
-
FEC v. Mass. Citizens for Life, Inc., 479 U.S. 238, 263 (1986).
-
-
-
-
267
-
-
37949015566
-
-
Austin, 494 U.S. at 662.
-
Austin, 494 U.S. at 662.
-
-
-
-
268
-
-
37949034865
-
-
431 U.S. 209, 222-23 (1977).
-
431 U.S. 209, 222-23 (1977).
-
-
-
-
269
-
-
37949053176
-
-
Id. at 235 (emphasis added).
-
Id. at 235 (emphasis added).
-
-
-
-
270
-
-
37949022568
-
-
Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446, 2449 (2000).
-
Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446, 2449 (2000).
-
-
-
-
271
-
-
37949057664
-
-
Id. at 2456 (emphasis added).
-
Id. at 2456 (emphasis added).
-
-
-
-
272
-
-
37949048875
-
-
Id. at 2449.
-
Id. at 2449.
-
-
-
-
273
-
-
37949049651
-
-
See id. at 2453.
-
See id. at 2453.
-
-
-
-
274
-
-
37949052378
-
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 633-34 (1989) (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 633-34 (1989) (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
275
-
-
37949032414
-
-
note
-
Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2457 ("The state interests embodied in New Jersey's public accommodations law do not justify such a severe intrusion on the Boy Scouts' rights to freedom of expressive association."). The Court did not hold that protecting gays from discrimination is not a compelling state interest. It may very well be a compelling state interest, but it is not strong enough to overcome the BSA's interest in maintaining its membership policy. Also, it is unlikely that Justices O'Connor and Kennedy, who joined the majority in Dale, would agree that eradicating anti-gay discrimination is not a compelling state interest. After all, Justice Kennedy wrote (and Justice O'Connor joined) the majority opinion in Romer v. Evans that declared gays needed the protection of anti-discrimination laws in order to participate in ordinary civic life. 517 U.S. 620, 631 (1996).
-
-
-
-
276
-
-
37949021461
-
-
See Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2457; Hurley v. Irish-Am. Gay, Lesbian & Bisexual Group, 515 U.S. 557, 572-73 (1995).
-
See Dale, 120 S. Ct. at 2457; Hurley v. Irish-Am. Gay, Lesbian & Bisexual Group, 515 U.S. 557, 572-73 (1995).
-
-
-
-
277
-
-
37949052153
-
-
N.Y. State lub Ass'n v. City of New York, 487 U.S. 1, 11-13 (1988); Bd. of Dirs. of Rotary Int'l v. Rotary Club, 481 U.S. 537 (1987); Roberts, 468 U.S. at 634 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
N.Y. State lub Ass'n v. City of New York, 487 U.S. 1, 11-13 (1988); Bd. of Dirs. of Rotary Int'l v. Rotary Club, 481 U.S. 537 (1987); Roberts, 468 U.S. at 634 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
278
-
-
37949028020
-
-
note
-
See Hishon v. King & Spaulding, 467 U.S. 69, 78 (1984) (rejecting the associational freedom claim of law firm); Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, 379 U.S. 241, 249-50 (1964) (rejecting the associational freedom claim of hotel). The provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, including Title II (prohibiting discrimination in "public accommodations") and Title VII (prohibiting discrimination in private employment), including the voluminous case law interpreting them, will be a useful guide in this area.
-
-
-
-
279
-
-
37949017493
-
-
Roberts, 468 U.S. at 636 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
Roberts, 468 U.S. at 636 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
280
-
-
37949002187
-
-
Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring); see also cases cited supra notes 271-73.
-
Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring); see also cases cited supra notes 271-73.
-
-
-
-
281
-
-
37949002117
-
-
N.Y. State Club Ass'n, 487 U.S. at 8, 13-14; Rotary Int'l, 481 U.S. at 539, 549.
-
N.Y. State Club Ass'n, 487 U.S. at 8, 13-14; Rotary Int'l, 481 U.S. at 539, 549.
-
-
-
-
282
-
-
37949007357
-
-
Isbister v. Boys Club, 707 P.2d 212, 217 (Gal. 1985).
-
Isbister v. Boys Club, 707 P.2d 212, 217 (Gal. 1985).
-
-
-
-
283
-
-
37949048626
-
-
Warfield v. Peninsula Golf & Country Club, 896 P.2d 776, 778 (Gal. 1995).
-
Warfield v. Peninsula Golf & Country Club, 896 P.2d 776, 778 (Gal. 1995).
-
-
-
-
284
-
-
37949048980
-
-
Curran v. Mount Diablo Council of the Boy Scouts, 952 P.2d 218, 236 (1998) (referring to the Boys' Club of Santa Cruz, Inc. in Isbister, 707 P.2d 212 (Cal. 1985)).
-
Curran v. Mount Diablo Council of the Boy Scouts, 952 P.2d 218, 236 (1998) (referring to the Boys' Club of Santa Cruz, Inc. in Isbister, 707 P.2d 212 (Cal. 1985)).
-
-
-
-
285
-
-
37949045020
-
-
note
-
This does not mean, of course, that a state could directly regulate the content of a commercial association's message. See infra Part III.A.4. The only point here is that the First Amendment permits an anti-discrimination law to force the business, for example, not to discriminate against a protected class even for a job with expressive functions. General Motors, as a commercial association, could be required consistent with the Constitution not to discriminate on the basis of race in the selection of its paid corporate spokesperson.
-
-
-
-
286
-
-
37949023632
-
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 639 (1984) (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 639 (1984) (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
287
-
-
37949004083
-
-
Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
288
-
-
37949007839
-
-
Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
289
-
-
37949017105
-
-
Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
290
-
-
37949027420
-
-
Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
Id. (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
291
-
-
37949036693
-
-
487 U.S. 1,12 (1988).
-
487 U.S. 1,12 (1988).
-
-
-
-
292
-
-
37949043653
-
-
See id. at 8.
-
See id. at 8.
-
-
-
-
293
-
-
84864905489
-
-
Id. at 6 (citing N.Y.C. ADMIN. CODE §8-102(9) (1986)).
-
Id. at 6 (citing N.Y.C. ADMIN. CODE §8-102(9) (1986)).
-
-
-
-
294
-
-
84864905178
-
-
Id. at 5-6 (quoting Local Law No. 63 of 1984, §1).
-
Id. at 5-6 (quoting Local Law No. 63 of 1984, §1).
-
-
-
-
295
-
-
37949055277
-
-
Id. at 18 (emphasis added).
-
Id. at 18 (emphasis added).
-
-
-
-
296
-
-
37949021973
-
-
Id. at 14 (emphasis omitted).
-
Id. at 14 (emphasis omitted).
-
-
-
-
297
-
-
37949025059
-
-
490 U.S. 19,28 (1989).
-
490 U.S. 19,28 (1989).
-
-
-
-
298
-
-
37949008328
-
-
Id. at 24-25.
-
Id. at 24-25.
-
-
-
-
299
-
-
37949049338
-
-
Id. at 24 (emphasis added).
-
Id. at 24 (emphasis added).
-
-
-
-
300
-
-
37949011674
-
-
Id. at 25 (quoting in part Bd. of Dirs. of Rotary Int'l v. Rotary Club, 481 U.S. 537, 548 (1987)).
-
Id. at 25 (quoting in part Bd. of Dirs. of Rotary Int'l v. Rotary Club, 481 U.S. 537, 548 (1987)).
-
-
-
-
301
-
-
37949057032
-
-
Id.
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
302
-
-
37949057969
-
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 639 (1984) (O'Connor, J., concurring) (quoting U.S. Jaycees v. McClure, 709 F.2d 1560, 1570 (8th Cir. 1983)).
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 639 (1984) (O'Connor, J., concurring) (quoting U.S. Jaycees v. McClure, 709 F.2d 1560, 1570 (8th Cir. 1983)).
-
-
-
-
303
-
-
37949006232
-
-
N.Y. State Club Ass'n v. City of New York, 487 U.S. 1, 12 (1988) (noting
-
N.Y. State Club Ass'n v. City of New York, 487 U.S. 1, 12 (1988) (noting that clubs may involve "a considerable amount of private or intimate association").
-
-
-
-
304
-
-
37949054620
-
-
N.Y. Times v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254 (1963).
-
N.Y. Times v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254 (1963).
-
-
-
-
305
-
-
37949057507
-
-
See Roberts, 468 U.S. at 635 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
See Roberts, 468 U.S. at 635 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
306
-
-
37949031937
-
-
On the other hand, the BSA might also be considered quasi-expressive under the tripartite approach. See infra Part III.A.4.
-
On the other hand, the BSA might also be considered quasi-expressive under the tripartite approach. See infra Part III.A.4.
-
-
-
-
307
-
-
37949041942
-
-
481 U.S. 537, 549 (1987).
-
481 U.S. 537, 549 (1987).
-
-
-
-
308
-
-
37949022157
-
-
quoted in Rotary Int'l, 481 U.S. at 539.
-
ROTARY MANUAL OF PROCEDURE 7 (1981), quoted in Rotary Int'l, 481 U.S. at 539.
-
(1981)
Rotary Manual of Procedure
, vol.7
-
-
-
309
-
-
37949044156
-
-
Rotary Int'l, 481 U.S. at 540.
-
Rotary Int'l, 481 U.S. at 540.
-
-
-
-
310
-
-
37949056317
-
-
Id. (quoting 2 ROTARY BASIC LIBRARY, CLUB SERVICE 67-69 (1981)).
-
Id. (quoting 2 ROTARY BASIC LIBRARY, CLUB SERVICE 67-69 (1981)).
-
-
-
-
311
-
-
37949033957
-
-
Id. at 542-43 (quoting in part Rotary Club v. Bd. of Dirs. of Rotary Int'l, 224 Gal. Rptr. 213, 226 (Gal. Ct. App. 1986)).
-
Id. at 542-43 (quoting in part Rotary Club v. Bd. of Dirs. of Rotary Int'l, 224 Gal. Rptr. 213, 226 (Gal. Ct. App. 1986)).
-
-
-
-
312
-
-
37949053641
-
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 636 (1984) (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 636 (1984) (O'Connor, J., concurring).
-
-
-
-
313
-
-
37949053747
-
-
427 U.S. 160,176 (1976).
-
427 U.S. 160,176 (1976).
-
-
-
-
314
-
-
84864905176
-
-
42 U.S.C. §1981 (1994) (codifying §1 of the Civil Rights Act of 1886).
-
42 U.S.C. §1981 (1994) (codifying §1 of the Civil Rights Act of 1886).
-
-
-
-
315
-
-
37948999205
-
-
Runyon, 427 U.S. at 168 (emphasis added).
-
Runyon, 427 U.S. at 168 (emphasis added).
-
-
-
-
316
-
-
37949014822
-
-
See id. at 176.
-
See id. at 176.
-
-
-
-
317
-
-
37949001587
-
-
See id.
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
318
-
-
37949040468
-
-
Id. (quoting McCrary v. Runyon, 515 F.2d 1082,1087 (4th Cir. 1975)).
-
Id. (quoting McCrary v. Runyon, 515 F.2d 1082,1087 (4th Cir. 1975)).
-
-
-
-
319
-
-
37949007520
-
-
Contra Hunter, supra note 4, at 1603 (questioning whether Runyon is still good law after Dale).
-
Contra Hunter, supra note 4, at 1603 (questioning whether Runyon is still good law after Dale).
-
-
-
-
321
-
-
37949008501
-
-
See supra Part III.A.3.
-
See supra Part III.A.3.
-
-
-
-
322
-
-
37949028142
-
-
Curran v. Mount Diablo Council of the Boy Scouts of America, 29 SW. U. L. REV. 401, 424 (2000).
-
Greg Coolidge, Note, Worshipping a Sacred Cow: Curran v. Mount Diablo Council of the Boy Scouts of America, 29 SW. U. L. REV. 401, 424 (2000).
-
Worshipping A Sacred Cow
-
-
Coolidge, G.1
-
323
-
-
37949009931
-
-
Id. at 424-25.
-
Id. at 424-25.
-
-
-
-
324
-
-
37949034559
-
-
Curran v. Mount Diablo Council of the Boy Scouts of Am., 952 P.2d 218, 223 (Cal. 1998). For a useful discussion of Curran, see Coolidge, supra note 316.
-
Curran v. Mount Diablo Council of the Boy Scouts of Am., 952 P.2d 218, 223 (Cal. 1998). For a useful discussion of Curran, see Coolidge, supra note 316.
-
-
-
-
325
-
-
37949004925
-
-
Curran, 952 P.2d at 223.
-
Curran, 952 P.2d at 223.
-
-
-
-
326
-
-
37949007795
-
-
Id. at 238.
-
Id. at 238.
-
-
-
-
327
-
-
37949038918
-
-
Id.
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
328
-
-
37949031273
-
-
See id.
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
329
-
-
37949019390
-
-
Runyon v. McCrary, 427 U.S. 160, 176 (1976) (quoting McCrary v. Runyon, 515 F.2d 1082,1087 (4th Cir. 1975)).
-
Runyon v. McCrary, 427 U.S. 160, 176 (1976) (quoting McCrary v. Runyon, 515 F.2d 1082,1087 (4th Cir. 1975)).
-
-
-
-
330
-
-
84864905490
-
-
"There is no way to operate a system of free expression without drawing lines.... The question is not whether to draw lines, but how to draw the right ones.".
-
CABS R. SUNSTEIN, DEMOCRACY AND THE PROBLEM OF FREE SPEECH 149 (1993) ("There is no way to operate a system of free expression without drawing lines.... The question is not whether to draw lines, but how to draw the right ones.").
-
(1993)
Democracy and the Problem of Free Speech
, vol.149
-
-
Sunstein, C.R.1
-
331
-
-
37949000395
-
-
See supra Part II.
-
See supra Part II.
-
-
-
-
332
-
-
84864905486
-
-
"Corporations generally have not played the historic role of newspapers as conveyers of individual ideas and opinions." Pac. Gas & Elec. Co. v. PUG, 475 U.S. 1, 33 (1986) (Rehnquist, J., dissenting).
-
"Corporations generally have not played the historic role of newspapers as conveyers of individual ideas and opinions." Pac. Gas & Elec. Co. v. PUG, 475 U.S. 1, 33 (1986) (Rehnquist, J., dissenting).
-
-
-
-
333
-
-
37949007885
-
-
Farber, supra note 314, at 1497-99.
-
Farber, supra note 314, at 1497-99.
-
-
-
-
334
-
-
37949008278
-
-
See Va. State Bd. of Pharmacy v. Va. Citizens Consumer Council, Inc., 425 U.S. 748, 772 n.24 (1976).
-
See Va. State Bd. of Pharmacy v. Va. Citizens Consumer Council, Inc., 425 U.S. 748, 772 n.24 (1976).
-
-
-
-
335
-
-
37949029097
-
-
See McGowan, supra note f, at n.62. It should be noted that Professor McGowan disagrees in part with the outcome in Dale and with my suggested approach in this area.
-
See McGowan, supra note f, at n.62. It should be noted that Professor McGowan disagrees in part with the outcome in Dale and with my suggested approach in this area.
-
-
-
-
336
-
-
84864905487
-
-
74 NW. U. L. REV. 372, 386-90 (1979)
-
Id. This argument holds, though with less force, in commercial set-tings other than the workplace. Membership in a situs of business networking, like the Jaycees or the Rotary Club, should be seen as only the step immediately preceding the commencement of commercial transactions. In the same way, "commercial speech" is only the first step in a commercial exchange that is fully regulable, see Daniel Färber, Commercial Speech and First Amendment Theory, 74 NW. U. L. REV. 372, 386-90 (1979), and thus enjoys less protection under the First Amendment than core political speech, see Greater New Orleans Broadcasting Ass'n v. United States, 527 U.S. 173, 18385 (1999) (subjecting restriction on gambling advertisement to intermediate scrutiny).
-
Commercial Speech and First Amendment Theory
-
-
Färber, D.1
-
337
-
-
84864905484
-
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 628 (1984) (noting that the state has a compelling interest in providing nondiscriminatory access to "goods, services, and other advantages ... wholly apart from the point of view such conduct may transmit").
-
Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 628 (1984) (noting that the state has a compelling interest in providing nondiscriminatory access to "goods, services, and other advantages ... wholly apart from the point of view such conduct may transmit").
-
-
-
-
338
-
-
84864901864
-
-
See Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397, 411 (1989) ("Whether Johnson's [flag burning] ... violated Texas Law thus depended on the likely communicative impact of his expressive conduct. . . . [T]his restriction on Johnson's expression is content based.").
-
See Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397, 411 (1989) ("Whether Johnson's [flag burning] ... violated Texas Law thus depended on the likely communicative impact of his expressive conduct. . . . [T]his restriction on Johnson's expression is content based.").
-
-
-
-
339
-
-
84864905175
-
-
See Roberts, 468 U.S. at 628 (noting that the state's interest in regulating discrimination in networking association is "wholly apart from the point of view such conduct may transmit").
-
See Roberts, 468 U.S. at 628 (noting that the state's interest in regulating discrimination in networking association is "wholly apart from the point of view such conduct may transmit").
-
-
-
-
340
-
-
37949029661
-
-
527 U.S. at 183 (applying intermediate scrutiny to commercial speech regulations).
-
Greater New Orleans Broadcasting Ass'n, 527 U.S. at 183 (applying intermediate scrutiny to commercial speech regulations).
-
Greater New Orleans Broadcasting Ass'n
-
-
-
341
-
-
37949025835
-
-
R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, 505 U.S. 377, 395-96 (1992) (subjecting content-based city ordinance against hate speech to strict scrutiny).
-
R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, 505 U.S. 377, 395-96 (1992) (subjecting content-based city ordinance against hate speech to strict scrutiny).
-
-
-
-
342
-
-
37949010370
-
-
Roberts, 468 U.S. at 628 (emphasis added).
-
Roberts, 468 U.S. at 628 (emphasis added).
-
-
-
-
343
-
-
37949001058
-
-
See supra Part III.B.2.
-
See supra Part III.B.2.
-
-
-
-
344
-
-
37949051587
-
-
See supra Part U.C.
-
See supra Part U.C.
-
-
-
-
345
-
-
37949000958
-
-
note
-
To the credit of its lawyers, the BSA's briefs in Dale avoided gay-bashing and even invoked gays' interest in associational freedom as a reason for reversing the New Jersey Supreme Court. Reply Brief for Petitioners at 1, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000) (No. 99-699), available at 2000 WL 432367. Moreover, the most prominent "dog that didn't bark" in the case was the stereotype of gay men as child molesters. At oral argument, counsel for the BSA expressly disclaimed fears that gays would behave inappropriately with boys in their charge. See Oral Argument Transcript, Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale, 120 S. Ct. 2446 (2000), 2000 WL 489419, at9-10; cf. Hunter, supra note 4, at 1611. Even if such fears really are at the base of the gay exclusion, the omission of the argument by itself marks Dale as a significant cultural and legal moment for gay Americans because it suggests the argument has lost much of its credibility. Recall the detective's parting jibe at Henry Gerber: "What was the idea of the Society for Human Rights anyway? Was it to give you birds the legal right to rape every boy on the street?" KATZ, supra note 53, at 392-93. At least the BSA did not argue Dale was demanding a right to do that.
-
-
-
-
346
-
-
37949036706
-
-
note
-
Thirty years after the beginning of the modern gay civil rights movement, "it is not the right to march in other people's parades, but to create and march in our own, that gay men and lesbians should seek to protect." Hirsch, supra note 43, at 100.
-
-
-
-
348
-
-
84864895703
-
-
Homosexual sodomy was a criminal act in New Jersey until 1979. See N.J. STAT. ANN. §2A:143-1 (repealed 1979).
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Homosexual sodomy was a criminal act in New Jersey until 1979. See N.J. STAT. ANN. §2A:143-1 (repealed 1979).
-
-
-
-
349
-
-
84864905173
-
-
See N.J. STAT. ANN. §§10:5-4,10:5-5 (1993).
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See N.J. STAT. ANN. §§10:5-4,10:5-5 (1993).
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