Ways of seeing: Evidence and learning in the history classroom

Journal of American History

Volumn 92, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 1371-1402

  Coventry, Michael ^a   Felten, Peter ^b   Jaffee, David ^c   O'Leary, Cecilia ^d   Weis, Tracey ^e   McGowan, Susannah ^f  

^a GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b ELON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c CITY COLLEGE OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^d CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e MILLERSVILLE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^f Women's Studies Program ^*

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 37849188316     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/4485897     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. David Pace, "The Amateur in the Operating Room: History and the Scholarship of Teaching," American Historical Review, 109 (Oct. 2004), 1171.
2. On viewing teaching problems as positive and worthy of research, see Randy Bass, "The Scholarship of Teaching: What's the Problem?," inventio, 1 (Feb. 1999) 〈http://www.doiiit.gmu.edu/Archives/feb98/ randybass.htm〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
3. The questions are from Pace, "Amateur in the Operating Room," 1176.
4. On early work that takes the evidence-based approach advocated here, see Lendol Calder, William W. Cutler III, and T. Mills Kelly, "History Lessons: Historians and the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning," in Disciplinary Styles in the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning: Exploring Common Ground, ed. Mary Taylor Huber and Sherwyn Morreale (Washington, 2002), 46, 52-54.
5. We adapt this definition of scholarship from Lee Shulman and the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, who expand the work of Ernest L. Boyer. See Lee Shulman, "Course Anatomy: The Dissection and Analysis of Knowledge through Teaching," in The Course Portfolio: How Faculty Can Examine Their Teaching to Advance Practice and Improve Student Learning, ed. Pat Hutchings (Washington, 1988), 5.
6. Ernest L. Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate (Princeton, 1990).
7. On the Visible Knowledge Project (VKP), see 〈http://crossroads. georgetown.edu/vkp/〉 (Sept. 25, 2005).
8. In July 2003 the Atlantic Philanthropies ended its program of grant making in higher education to focus on areas such as population growth and human rights. See the Atlantic Philanthropies 〈http://www. atlanticphilanthropies.org/areas_of_support/earlier_programs.asp〉 (Dec. 13, 2005).
9. Sam Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past (Philadelphia, 2001), 91.
10. Entries for "history teaching" indexed in America: History and Life increased from 253 (1985-1989), to 260 (1990-1994), to 357 (1995-1999), and to 428 (2000-2005).
11. Important book-length investigations include Paul Gagnon, ed., Historical Literacy: The Case for History in American Education (New York, 1989);
12. Peter N. Stearns, Meaning over Memory: Recasting the Teaching of Culture and History (Chapel Hill, 1993);
13. Robert Blackley, ed. History Anew. Innovations in the Teaching of History Today (Long Beach, 1993);
14. Gary B. Nash, Charlotte Crabtree, and Ross E. Dunn, History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past (New York, 1997);
15. Peter N. Stearns, Peter Seixas, and Sam Wineburg, eds., Knowing, Teaching, and Learning History (New York, 2000);
16. Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts;
17. Jonathan Zimmerman, Whose America? Culture Wars in the Public Schools (Cambridge, Mass., 2002);
18. Linda Symcox, Whose History? The Struggle for National Standards in American Classrooms (New York, 2002);
19. and Thomas Bender et al., The Education of Historians for the Twenty-First Century (Urbana, 2004).
20. Mariolina Rizzi Salvatori, "The Scholarship of Teaching: Beyond the Anecdotal," Pedagogy, 2 (Fall 2002), 298.
21. Pace, "Amateur in the Operating Room," 1189.
22. Robert B. Bain, "Into the Breach: Using Research and Theory to Shape History Instruction," in Knowing, Teaching, and Learning History, ed. Stearns, Seixas, and Wineburg, 332;
23. W. J. T. Mitchell, Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation (Chicago, 1994), 11;
24. Sol Cohen, "An Innocent Eye: The Pictorial Turn, Film Studies, and History," History of Education Quarterly, 43 (Summer 2003), 251.
25. For a survey of approaches to images, see Peter Burke, Eyewitnessing: The Uses of Images as Historical Evidence (Ithaca, 2001).
26. For examples of the recent shift toward visual evidence, see George H. Roeder Jr., "Filling in the Picture: Visual Culture," Reviews in American History, 26 (March 1998), 275-93;
27. Joshua Brown, Beyond the Lines: Pictorial Reporting, Everyday Life, and the Crises of Gilded Age America (Berkeley, 2002);
28. and Peter H. Wood, Weathering the Storm: Inside Winslow Homer's Gulf Stream (Athens, Ga., 2004).
29. Louis Masur, "'Pictures Have Now Become a Necessity': The Use of Images in American History Textbooks," Journal of American History, 84 (March 1998), 1409;
30. David Jaffee, '"Scholars will soon be instructed through the eye': E-Supplements and the Teaching of U.S. History," Journal of American History, ibid., 89 (March 2003), 1463-82.
31. For speculations on moving images to the center of historical accounts, see Katherine Martinez, "Imaging the Past: Historians, Visual Images, and the Contested Definition of History," Visual Resources, 11 (no. 1, 1995), 27.
32. On students and images, see James H. Madison, "Teaching with Images," OAH Magazine of History, 18 (Jan. 2004), 65.
33. For a detailed approach to understanding the textual reading practices of historians, see Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts, 89-112, esp. 76.
34. On the need for conventions for reading images, see Robert M. Levine, Insights into American History: Photographs as Documents (Upper Saddle River, 2004), ix.
35. Wineburg's model was adapted by the Center for History and New Media, the American Social History Project, and the Visible Knowledge Project in the production of the Making Sense of Evidence Web site. See Center for History and New Media, Making Sense of Evidence 〈http://historymatters.gmu.edu/browse/ makesense/〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
36. For another project that works with college, university, and high school teachers of history and the use of images in the classroom, see American Social History Project, Learning to Look: Visual Evidence and the U.S. Past in the New Media Classroom 〈http://web.gc.cuny.edu/ashp/LTLNMC/〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
37. Masur, '"Pictures Have Now Become a Necessity,'" 1423.
38. On the complexities of multimedia authoring in humanities classrooms, see Visible Knowledge Project, Multimedia Authoring Gallery 〈http:// crossroads.georgetown.edu/vkp/themes/poster_showcase_writing.htm〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
39. See also Randy Bass and Bret Eynon, eds., The Difference That Inquiry Makes (forthcoming, 2006),
40. and Randy Bass and Bret Eynon, "Teaching Culture, Learning Culture, and New Media Technologies: An Introduction and Framework," Works and Days, 16 (nos. 1-2, 1998), 11-96.
41. For examples of new digital scholarship in history, see Robert Darnton, "An Early Information Society: News and the Media in Eighteenth-Century Paris," American Historical Review, 105 (Feb. 2000), 1-35;
42. Roy Rosenzweig et al., "Forum on Hypertext Scholarship: AQ as Web-Zine - Responses to AQ'S Experimental Online Issue," American Quarterly, 51 (June 1999), 237-83;
43. and the contents of the special issue "Hypertext Scholarship in American Studies," ed. Roy Rosenzweig, American Quarterly, 51 (June 1999) 〈http://chnm.gmu.edu/aq/〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
44. See also the introduction to an online article on slavery: William G. Thomas III and Edward L. Ayers, "The Difference That Slavery Made: A Close Analysis of Two American Communities," American Historical Review, 108 (Dec. 2003), 1299-1307;
45. and the article: William G. Thomas III and Edward L. Ayers, "The Difference That Slavery Made: A Close Analysis of Two American Communities," American Historical Review, 108 (Dec. 2003) 〈http://www.vcdh.virginia.edu/AHR/〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
46. Thomas and Ayers, "Presentation," in "The Difference That Slavery Made," 〈http://www.vcdh.virginia.edu/AHR/〉 (Sept. 22, 2005).
47. OLIVIA: "'The Industrial life' picture seems to view industrial work in a romanticized light, which contrasts with the way it originally used to be represented. Early in the century, industrial life was seen as unsanitary, dangerous, menial work, fit for only the poor. This picture, however, uses vivid, warm colors, clean cut and clear drawn lines. I think after WWII (this picture was created in 1941) there seemed to be more of a romanticized view of technology and industry and all that can be accomplished. The picture shows 4 types of work being done that are necessary to an industrial society. There's the scientist, the architect, the worker, and I guess the engineer.
48. "The second picture 'Security of the Family' is supposed to represent family life and roles during the 40s. The woman (the mother) is seen holding a child - obviously meaning that women were expected to be mothers and child rearers. The Father is seen as being more 'intellectual,' sitting down at the table, seeming to have an important air about him. The girl is drawing, to represent that girls are seen as being artistic. The young boy is playing tennis. It shows that girls are supposed to 'act like girls,' being calm and 'cultured.' Boys seem to have more liberties in their manner of behavior."
49. ARTHUR: "Seymour Fogel's painting, 'Security of the Family,' reminds me of Norman Rockwell's paintings, "The Four Freedoms.' The Rockwell image from that group that comes to mind most immediately is the one where the child is being tucked into bed with the father looking on holding a newspaper containing terrifying headlines.
50. "Both Rockwell and Fogel are presenting idealized images of American society, but they're different. Fogel is not seeking to portray the warmth and intimacy of the kind that Rockwell seeks to portray. Fogel's figures, drawn in the way that marble might be sculpted into statues, present Family Life as a monumental, larger than life force.
51. "The sky overhead may be gray and over cast, but the mother - staring out into the undefined future much as the mother in Lange's 'Migrant Mother' - is, like the other members of the family, stolid, sturdy, unwavering in their march forward into the unknown."
52. See Barbara Melosh, Engendering Culture: Manhood and Womanhood in New Deal Public Art and Theater (Washington, 1991).
53. "Exercise Two," History 31516: Power, Race, and Culture in the U.S. City, Fall 2003, City College of New York 〈http://www.ccny.cuny.edu/ humanities/jaffee/nyc/exer2.html〉 (Dec. 1, 2005).
54. See Brian W. Dippie, George Catlin and His Indian Gallery (Washington, 2002);
55. Thomas Loraine McKenney, History of the Indian Tribes of North America, with Biographical Sketches and Anecdotes of the Principal Chiefs Embellished with One Hundred and Twenty Portraits from the Indian Gallery in the Department of War (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1838-1844);
56. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York, 1991);
57. Carrie Rebora, John Singleton Copley in America (New York, 1995).
58. Peter Seixas, "Preservice Teachers Assess Students' Prior Historical Understanding," Social Studies, 85 (Jan.-Feb. 1994), 91-95;
59. Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts, 232-55;
60. Sam Wineburg, Susan Mosborg, and Dan Porat, "What Can Forrest Gump Tell Us about Students' Historical Understanding?," Social Education, 65 (Jan.-Feb. 2001), 55.
61. See also Marita Sturken, Tangled Memories: The Vietnam War, The AIDS Epidemic, and the Politics of Remembering (Berkeley, 1997).
62. Forrest Gump, dir. Robert Zemeckis (Paramount, 1994).
63. John D. Bransford, Ann L. Brown, and Rodney R. Cocking, eds., How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (Washington, 2001), 10.
64. I adapted the ranking question from Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts, 75;
65. and Roy Rosenzweig and David Thelen, The Presence of the Past: Popular Uses of History in American Life (New York, 1998), 91.
66. For a detailed explanation of both the source-sequencing exercise and its results, see Peter Felten, "'Photos - The Almost Most Objective Evidence There Is': Reading Words and Images of the 1960s," Reader, 52 (Spring 2005), 77-94.
67. Marita Sturken and Lisa Cartwright, Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture (New York, 2001), 17.
68. This aligns with Roy Rosenzweig and David Thelen's findings that films and television are widely considered to be untrustworthy sources of historical knowledge. See Rosenzweig and Thelen, Presence of the Past, 91, 97-101. It seems, however, that some people may internalize a historical narrative presented on film or TV (such as Forrest Gump) even though they tell researchers and teachers that such video sources are of dubious historical value. Emphasis added.
69. Russell Olwell, "New Views Of Slavery: Using Recent Historical Work to Promote Critical Thinking about the 'Peculiar Institution,'" History Teacher, 34 (no. 4, 2001), 459-69.
70. "Syllabus," History 272: African American History, Fall 2002, Millersville University 〈http://muweb.millersville.edu/~ugrr/272〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
71. For more on this assignment, see 〈http://muweb.millersville.edu/ ugrr/272/tsoutline.pdf〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
72. In addition, each team had to investigate the Web site of a historic site that challenged or contradicted the presentation of master-slave relations at the first site. The paired sites were: (1) Monticello 〈http://www. monticello.org/〉 (Sept. 20, 2005)
73. and Kingsley Plantation 〈http://www.cr.nps.gov/goldcres/sites/ kingsley.htm〉 (Sept. 20, 2005);
74. Mount Vernon 〈http://www.mountvernon.org〉 (Sept. 20, 2005)
75. and Seacoast New Hampshire Black History 〈http://seascoastnh.com/ blackhistory/ona.html〉 (Sept. 20, 2005) (featuring the story of Ona Judge Staines, who escaped the Executive Mansion in Philadelphia in 1796 and made her way to Portsmouth, New Hampshire);
76. Colonial Williamsburg 〈http://www.colonialwilliamsburg.com/〉 (Sept. 20, 2005)
77. and Common-Place 〈http://www.common-place.org/〉 (Sept. 20, 2005);
78. and (4) selected sites administered by the National Park Service 〈http://www.cr.nps.gov/aahistory/〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
79. We drew on several resources to develop our rubric for assessing multimedia narratives. For the elements that make a "good story," see the Cookbook from the Center for Digital Storytelling 〈http://www. storycenter.org/memvoice/pages/cookbook.html〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
80. For the components of effective historical narratives, see the National History Standards 〈http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/nchs/standards〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
81. For guidance in using images in a historical interpretation, see Martinez, in "Imaging the Past" 21-45.
82. For rubrics of narrative construction, see "Digital Storytelling: Some Selected Online Resources," VKP Community Newsletter (Sept. 2002) 〈http://crossroads.georgetown.edu/bkp/newsletter/0902/resorces.html〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
83. For a sample assessment grid, see 〈http://muweb.millersville.edu/ ~ugrr/VKP/triad/vkp.html〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
84. Ira Berlin, Generations of Captivity: A History of African-American Slaves (Cambridge, Mass., 2003), 10.
85. James Oliver Horton, "On-Site Learning: The Power of Historic Places," CRM Online, 23 (no. 8, 2000) (access by subscription only).
86. See also James O. Horton, "Presenting Slavery: The Perils of Telling America's Racial Story," Public Historian, 21 (Fall 1999), 19-38.
87. The photograph of the historical interpreter appeared on the Colonial Williamsburg Web site. See Colonial Williamsburg: African-American Experience 〈http://www.history.org/Almanack/life/Af_Amer/aalife.cfm〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
88. For another perspective on "tales that teach," see Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York, 1977).
89. Karen E. Sutton, "Confronting Slavery Face-to-Face: A Twenty-First-Century Interpreter's Perspective on Eighteenth-Century Slavery," Common-Place, 1 (July 2001) 〈http://www.common-place.org/ vol-01/no-04/slavery/sutton.shtml〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
90. Christopher D. Geist, "African-American History at Colonial Williamsburg," CRM Online, 20 (no. 2, 1997) (access by subscription only);
91. Jeffrey J. Crow, "Interpreting Slavery in the Classroom and at Historic Sites," AHA Perspectives, 36 (March 1998).
92. The painting appears as an illustration in Alex Bontemps, "Seeing Slavery: How Paintings Make Words Look Different," Common-Place, 1 (July 2001) 〈http://www.common-place.org/vol-01/no-04/slavery/bontemps. shtml〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
93. Interpretations that informed this student's reading of the master-slave relationship in colonial-era Williamsburg included Shane White, "Introduction: Representing Slavery; A Roundtable Discussion," Common-Place, ibid.;
94. Sutton, "Confronting Slavery Face-to-Face";
95. and Bontemps, "Seeing Slavery."
96. On variations in historical understanding among students of various national, ethnic, and racial backgrounds, see Keith Barton, "Research on Students' Historical Thinking and Learning," AHA Perspectives, 42 (Oct. 2004), 21.
97. This unsigned painting (c. 1777-1794), held by the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center in Williamsburg, Virginia, appeared in Bontemps, "Seeing Slavery." The paper on which it was painted shows a paper maker's watermark from 1777-1794. Historians speculate it shows a scene from the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century on a plantation between Charleston and Orangeburg, South Carolina.
98. Frederick Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom (New York, 1855), chap. 4;
99. Burke, Eyewitnessing, 13-16.
100. Additionally, as the National Standards for History urge, students must develop competencies to interrogate "a variety of visual sources such as historical photographs, political cartoons, paintings, and architecture in order to clarify, illustrate, or elaborate upon the information presented" in written narratives. National Center for History in the Schools, National Standards for History 〈http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/nchs/standards/thinking5- 12-2.html〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
101. Amistad, dir. Steven Spielberg (DreamWorks, 1997).
102. Standard 3B Historical Analysis and Interpretation, National Standards for History 〈http://nchs.ucla.edu/standards/thinking5-12_toc.html〉 (Sept. 20, 2005).
103. For other explorations of digital storytelling, see Tracey M. Weis et al., "Digital Storytelling in Culture and History Classrooms," in Engines of Inquiry: Approaches to Teaching, Learning, and Technology in American Culture Studies, ed. Michael Coventry (1998; Washington, 2003), 397-413;
104. Viet Than Nguyen, "How Do We Tell Stories?," Engines of Inquiry: Approaches to Teaching, Learning, and Technology in American Culture Studies ibid., 363-96;
105. and Joe Lambert, Digital Storytelling: Capturing Lives, Creating Community (Berkeley, 2002).
106. From the literature on new media, see Mark Stephen Meadows, Pause and Effect: The An of Interactive Narrative (Indianapolis, 2003);
107. Gunnar Liestol, Andrew Morrison, and Terje Rassmussen, eds., Digital Media Revisited: Theoretical and Conceptual Innovations in Digital Domains (Cambridge, Mass., 2003);
108. Lev Manovich, The Language of New Media (Cambridge, Mass., 2001);
109. and Mary E. Hocks and Michelle R. Kendrick, eds., Eloquent Images: Word and Image in the Age of New Media (Cambridge, Mass., 2003).
110. On describing features of student learning, see Pat Hutchings, "Approaching the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning," in Opening Lines: Approaches to the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, ed. Pat Hutchings (Menlo Park, 2000), 4.
111. On juxtaposition, see Nancy Barta-Smith and Danette DiMarco, "Same Difference: Evolving Conclusions about Textuality and New Media," in Eloquent Images, ed. Hocks and Kendrick, 159-78;
112. and Jennifer Wiley, "Cognitive and Educational Implications of Visually Rich Media: Images and Imagination," Eloquent Images, ibid., 201-15.
113. On visual arguments, see Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen, Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design (New York, 1996);
114. N. Katherine Hayles, Writing Machines (Cambridge, Mass., 2002);
115. and Edward R. Tufte, Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, Evidence and Narrative (Cheshire, Conn., 1997).
116. Allyson Hurt, "How to Be a Domestic Goddess," digital story, Communication, Culture, and Technology Program, Georgetown University, May 2004;
117. Allyson Hurt, "How to Be a Domestic Goddess," reflective paper, Communication, Culture, and Technology Program, Georgetown University, May 11, 2004, p. 1 (in Michael Coventry's possession).
118. Hurt, "How to Be a Domestic Goddess," reflective paper, 6.
119. The theory of gender performance also influenced Hurt's reading. See, for example, Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York, 1990).
120. Malgorzata Rymsza-Pawlowska, "'Lighting Up at the Dawn of Modernity,"' digital story, Communication, Culture, and Technology Program, Georgetown University, Dec. 2004;
121. Malgorzata Rymsza-Pawlowska, "'Lighting Up at the Dawn of Modernity': The 1920s Woman and Smoking as a Performance of Social Change," reflective paper, Communication, Culture, and Technology Program, Georgetown University, Dec. 16, 2004 (in Coventry's possession).
122. Rymsza-Pawlowska, "'Lighting Up at the Dawn of Modernity,'" digital story;
123. Rymsza-Pawlowska, "'Lighting Up at the Dawn of Modernity,'" reflective paper, 2.
124. Rymsza-Pawlowska, '"Lighting Up at the Dawn of Modernity,'" reflective paper, 5.
125. On the relationship between new-media pedagogy and elements of quality learning, see Randy Bass, "Engines of Inquiry: Teaching, Technology, and Learner-Centered Approaches to Culture and History," in Engines of Inquiry, ed. Coventry, 3-26.
126. What students bring into the history classroom is a crucial area for future research on student learning. See Pace, "Amateur in the Operating Room."
127. On assets-based approaches to multicultural learning, see the special issue "Pedagogies for Social Change," ed. Susan Roberta Katz and Cecilia Elizabeth O'Leary, Social Justice, 29 (Winter 2002), 1-197.
128. In approaching documents, students enact processes similar to those of historians. See Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts.
129. T. Mills Kelly, "For Better or Worse? The Marriage of the Web and the Classroom," Journal of Association for History and Computing, 3 (Aug. 2000) 〈http://mcel.pacificu.edu/JAHC/JAHCIII2/ARTICLES/kelly/kelly. html〉 (Sept. 25, 2005).
130. Raymond Barrio, The Plum, Plum Pickers (Binghamton, 1971), 84-94;
131. Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, "Invasion of the Americas and the Making of the Mestizocoyote Nation: Heritage of the Invasion," Social Justice, 20 (Spring-Summer 1993), 52-55;
132. Paul Takagi, "Growing Up as a Japanese Boy in Sacramento County," Social Justice, ibid., 26 (Summer 1999), 135-49.
133. On teaching strategies, see Bain, "Into the Breach," 334-35.
134. Matthew Fox, "Student Reflection," Spring 2005, California State University, Monterey Bay, (in Cecilia O'Leary's possession).
135. Salvatori, "Scholarship of Teaching," 369-94.
136. See Dominick LaCapra, History in Transit: Experience, Identity, Critical Theory (Ithaca, 2004);
137. John H. Zammito, "Reading 'Experience': The Debate in Intellectual History among Scott, Toews, and LaCapra," in Reclaiming Identity: Realist Theory and the Predicament of Postmodernism, ed. Paula M. L. Moya and Michael R. Hames-Garcia (Berkeley, 2000);
138. Joan W. Scott, "Experience," in Feminists Theorize the Political, ed. Judith Butler and Joan W. Scott (New York, 1992), 22-40;
139. and John E. Toews, "Intellectual History after the Linguistic Turn: The Autonomy of Meaning and the Irreducibility of Experience," American Historical Review, 92 (Oct. 1987), 879-907.
140. See also Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (New York, 1988).