The science and technology of materials in automotive engines

The Science and Technology of Materials in Automotive Engines

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages

  Yamagata, Hiroshi ^a  

^a YAMAHA MOTOR CO   (Japan)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 37549011204     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1533/9781845690854     Document Type: Book

References (250)

1. Duffy J.E., Auto Engines, New York, The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc. (1997).
2. Automotive Handbook, 5th edition, ed. by Bauer H. Warrendale SAE, Society of Automotive Engineers, (2000).
3. Federal-Mogul corporate catalogue, (2003)
4. Kolbenschmidt and Pierburg, Homepage, http://www.kolbenschmidt-pierburg.com (2003).
5. Maier K., VDI Berichte, 866 (1990) 99.
6. Hill S.H., et al., SAE Paper 950938.
7. The contact pressure of the ring in two-stroke engines is relatively low in comparison with that of four-stroke engines. The lubrication oil mixed with the petrol is consumed regularly.
8. Yamamoto H., et al., Jidoushagijutuskai Kouen Maezurishu, 934 (1993) 89 (in Japanese).
9. Matsuo S., et al., Proc. Int. Sympo. Automotive Technol. Autom., (1994) 183.
10. Huebler J. and Melnikova L., Private communication, (2003).
11. Koehler E., et al., ATZ/MTZ Special Edition Werkstoffe im Automobilbau, (1996), 2.
12. Benson T., http://wright.nasa.gov/airplane/powered.html., (2003).
13. Tomituka K., Nainenkikanno Rekishi, Sanei Publishing, (1987) 85 (in Japanese).
14. Federal Mogule Corp., Catalogue, (2003).
15. Nikkei Materials & Technology, 142 (1994) 10 (in Japanese)
16. Koya E., et al., Honda R & D Technical Review, 6 (1994) 126.
17. Kolbenschmidt Pierburg AG catalogue., http:// www.kolbenschmidt-pierburg.com, (2003).
18. Sekiyama S., Kouku Daigakkou Kenkyuu Houkoku, R32 (1980) 1 (in Japanese). For a motorcycle, the Kreidler company first used porous chrome plating on the aluminum cylinder of a two-stroke 50 cm3 engine in 1950.
19. Tomituka K. Nainenkikanno Rekishi, Tokyo, Sanei Publishing, (1987) 157 (in Japanese).
20. Tagami S., Nainenkikan, 29 (1990) 49 (in Japanese).
21. Maier K., Oberflache, 32 (1991) 18.
22. Funatani K., et al., SAE Paper 940852.
23. Enomoto H., et al., Fukugoumekki, Tokyo, Nikkan Kougyou Shinbunsha Publishing, (1986) (in Japanese).
24. Hayashi H., Hyoumen Gijutsu, 45 (1994) 1250 (in Japanese).
25. Konagai N., et al., Nainenkikan, 33 (1994) 14 (in Japanese).
26. Muramatsu H. and Ishimori S., Jidoushayou Arumi Hyoumenshori Kenkyukaishi, 14 (1996) 17 (in Japanese).
27. Ishimori S., et al., Proceedings of the 71st. American Electroplater's Soc., (1984) 0- 5.
28. Funatani S., Kinzoku, 65 (1995) 295 (in Japanese).
29. Emde V.W., et al., Galvanotech, 86 (1995) 383.
30. Isobe M. and Ikegaya H., Jidoushagijutu, 48 (1994) 89 (in Japanese).
31. Fukunaga H., et al., Nihon Yousha Kyoukaishi, 11 (1974) 193 (in Japanese).
32. Barbezat G. and Wuest G., Surface engineering, 14 (1998) 113.
33. Barbezat G., et al., Proceedings of the 1st united thermal spray conference, Indianapolis, ASM international, (1997) 11.
34. Jorstad J.L., Trans. American Foundrymen's Society, 79 (1971) 85.
35. Jacobsen E.G., SAE Paper 830006.
36. Jorstad J.L. SAE Paper 830010.
37. Kurita H. and Yamagata H., SAE Paper 2004-01-1028.
38. Klink U. and Flores G., Machinen Fabrik Gehring GmbH & Co., (2000).
39. In the small four-stroke engine, a high-pressure die cast cylinder bore is used without any surface modification and the piston is not coated, yet this engine generates only low power
40. Jidousha Kougaku, 40 (1992) 38 (in Japanese)
41. Ebisawa M. and Hara T., SAE Paper 910835.
42. Shibata K. and Ushio H., Tribology International, 27 (1994) 39.
43. Takami T., et al., SAE Paper 2000-01-1231.
44. Cosworth home page, http:// www.cosworth-technology.co.uk, (2003).
45. Hydro Aluminum homepage, http://www.hydro.com, (2005).
46. AFS home page, http://web.umr.edu/~foundry/first.htm, (2003).
47. Kuroki K., et al., Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Semi-Solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Limassol, Paper No. 04-03, (2004).
48. Vinarcik E.J., High Integrity Die Casting Processes, New York, John Wiley & Sons, (2003) 51.
49. Mantani N. and Touhata T., Sokeizai, (1995) 14 (in Japanese).
50. Ryobi Co., Ltd., Catalogue, (2001) (in Japanese).
51. The port shape and number have changed to improve engine performance. Three ports for inlet, exhaust and scavenging were normal in the past, while seven ports are general now. Sufficient scavenging and air inlet efficiencies needed some additional ports. The exhaust port width has enlarged to decrease resistance to gas flow. These designs have made casting difficult.
52. The following ref. explains an invention on a pierced cast-iron liner having several ports.
53. Koike T. and Yamagata H., Advanced Technology of Plasticity 1987, Springer-Verlag, (1987) 299.
54. Shirasagi S., Nainenkikan: 14 (1975) 11 (in Japanese).
55. Aruminiumu Hyoumenno Atsumakukoukagijutsu: JRCM, Tokyo, Nikkan Kougyou Shinbunsha Publishing, (1995) (in Japanese)
56. Shioda W., Keikinzoku, 21 (1971) 670 (in Japanese).
57. Generally, two-stroke engine pistons have high operational temperatures, which are due to the difficulty of cooling. To raise seizure resistance more, there is AC 9A alloy containing 23% Si. This alloy has superior properties but is rarely used because of the difficulty in casting.
58. The coated piston with a solid lubricant is sometimes used in order to improve running-in wear see Table H.1 on page 293.
59. oC.
60. Ochiai Y., Sousetsu Kikaizairyo, Ver. 3, Tokyo, Rikougakusha Publishing, (1994) (in Japanese).
61. Aluminiumno Soshikito Seishitsu, ed. by Keikinzoku Gakkai, (1991) 248 (in Japanese).
62. There are two types of diamond bits: single-crystal bit and polycrystal bit. The polycrystal diamond bit is stronger in chipping than the single-crystal bit. However, the single-crystal bit gives a smoother cut surface. The polycrystal bit consists of many fine single crystals. Sintering using Co alloy bound the crystals.
63. Jidousha Enjin Pisuton, ed. by Suzuki Y., Tokyo, Sankaidou Publishing, (1997) (in Japanese).
64. Atake N., Jidousha Gijutsu, 47 (1993) 40 (in Japanese).
65. Koya E., et al., Honda R&D Technical Review, 5 (1993) 43 (in Japanese).
66. Suto S., et al., Kinzoku Soshikigaku, Tokyo, Maruzen Co., Ltd. (1972) 154 (in Japanese).
67. Suto H., Kikai Zairyougaku, Tokyo, Corona Publishing, (1985) 57 (in Japanese).
68. oC is explained (in Japanese).
69. oC
70. Furuhama S., Nainenkikan, 22 (1983) 61 (in Japanese).
71. Tomanik E., Zabeu C.B. and de Almeida G.M., SAE Paper 2003-01-1102.
72. Kurita H., et al., SAE Paper 2001-01-0821. Anodizing for a high-strength piston alloy containing Cu was developed.
73. Donomoto T., et al., SAE Paper 911284.
74. Yamauchi T. et al., SAE Paper 830252.
75. This temperature, above which the strength rapidly decreases, is proportional to the melting temperature of an alloy. Generally, it corresponds to a half of the melting temperature.
76. Kolbenschmidt-Pierburg, Homepage, http://www.kolbenschmidt.de, (2003).
77. Koike T., et al., Proceedings of the 4th Japan International SAMPE Symposium, (1995), 501.
78. Yamagata H. and Koike T., Sokeizai, 11 (1997) 7 (in Japanese).
79. Yamagata H., Proceedings of Towards Innovation of Superplasticity II, JIMIS 9 Kobe, eds Sakuma T., et al., Trans Tech Publications, (1999) 797.
80. Aluminum-base PM alloys are also used for compressors and cylinder liners. These parts require high wear resistance.
81. Donomoto T., et al., SAE Paper, 830252.
82. Hayashi H., et al., SAE Paper, 940847. The piston material requires wear resistance as well as strength in a wide temperature range.
83. PM aluminum alloy was first developed in Switzerland in 1945
84. Irmann R., Metallurgia, September (1952) 125. SAP (Sintered aluminum powder) alloy is well known. The extrusion technology developed in the 1980s has industrially enabled high quality materials.
85. The testing was carried out using over-aged specimens. The matrix strength decreases through over-ageing. However, the strength is kept high even at high temperaturesbecause the Fe-Al intermetallic compound in the AFP1 matrix does not coarsen even at high temperatures.
86. Koike T. and Yamagata H., Proceedings of PM94 world congress, Société Française de Metallurgie et de Materiaux and European Powder Metallurgy Association, Les Edition de Physique, (1994) 1627.
87. Federal Mogul catalogue, (2003)
88. Jidoushayou Pisutonringu, ed. by Jidoushayou Pisutonringu Henshuiinkai, Tokyo, Sankaido Publishing, (1997) (in Japanese).
89. Some small miniature engines do not use piston rings at all. The small bore diameters of these engines can maintain a small running clearance between the piston and cylinder even at elevated temperatures. This minimizes blow-by without causing piston seizure.
90. There is an attempt to decrease the ring number, two rings in four-stroke engines and one ring in two-stroke engines. The purpose is to decrease the inertial weight. However, less durability is likely to increase blow-by and oil consumption. Presently, some high performance engines use this construction.
91. Two-stroke engines can supply less lubrication oil around the piston ring. The combustion frequency is twice that of four-stroke engines, so that the piston ring is continuously pressed to the ring groove bottom. By contrast, the lubrication oil in four-stroke engines thrusts into the clearance between the ring and ring groove. The ring lifts in the groove with the inertial force during the exhaust cycle.
92. oC, should be below 7% in JIS-FC and 10% in JIS-FCD rings
93. Ebihara K. and Uenishi J., Pisutonringu, Tokyo, Nikkankougyou Shinbun Publishing, (1955) 135 (in Japanese).
94. Cho H., et al., Kyujoukokuen Chutetsu, Tokyo, Agne Publishing, (1983) (in Japanese).
95. The ring was functionally divided into the compression ring and oil control ring in 1915. The steel ring was first used for oil rings in 1930.
96. Tomitsuka K., Nainenkikanno Rekishi, Tokyo, Sanei Publishing, (1987) (in Japanese).
97. Yoshida H., Tribologist, 44 (1999)157 (in Japanese).
98. Not only the piston ring but also the piston-ring groove should have enough wear resistance. Hard anodizing is usually applied for the top ring groove. See Chapter 3.
99. Bonderizing used for cold forging is also a similar chemical conversion. It is a Znphosphate coating permeated with soap. The Mn-phosphate coating is commercially called parkerizing. Unlike plating, the phosphate conversion dissolves iron substrate. See Appendix H.
100. Decoration-chrome plating aims at corrosion resistance and luster. We generally see decoration-chrome plated goods in the market. For decorative purposes, cracks in the plated layer are unfavorable. Water penetrates into the iron substrate through the cracks to cause rust. To prevent this, a thin copper or nickel layer is plated first, and then the chrome is overlaid.
101. Riken Co., Ltd, Piston Ring and Seal Handbook, (1995) (in Japanese).
102. Miyazaki S., Tribologist, 44 (1999)169 (in Japanese).
103. Iwashita T., Tribologist, 48 (2003)190 (in Japanese).
104. Furuhama S., Jidousha Enjinno Toraiboloji, Tokyo, Natsume Publishing, (1972) (in Japanese).
105. For example, let us imagine the flat bottom of a kettle on a table. The contact surface between the kettle and the table is a flat plane. The weight of the kettle is dispersed across the plane of contact. The contact pressure at the surface is determined by dividing the kettle weight by the contact area. By contrast, in the case of a kettle having a spherical bottom shape, although the unstable shape is fictitious, the contact portion becomes a geometric point. This applies when a heavy ball like a shot is placed on a table. The load concentrates at a point to cause an extremely high contact pressure. In practice the contact area takes a small circle because the two objects (shot and table) deform elastically. The concentrated stress is called Hertzian stress. It is possible to calculate the stress mathematically by considering the elastic deformation at the contact portion. H. Hertz is the scientist who first calculated it. The results have been given in various contact situations such as a sphere vs. a sphere, a plane vs. a sphere, etc.
106. Automotive Handbook: 5th edition, ed., by Bauer H., Warrendale, SAE Society of Automotive Engineers, (2000) 409.
107. Hoshi M. and Kobayashi M., Kikaisekkei, 24 (1980) 56, (in Japanese).
108. Quoted partially from E. Ogawa: Tribologist, 48(2003) 184.
109. A similar procedure called modification is also carried out to make the Si particle finer in high-Si aluminum alloys (Chapter 2)
110. oC) close to the melting temperature of pure iron. Since it cannot melt steel scraps, it uses pig iron produced by iron mills. The adjustment of chemical compositions is not easy in comparison with the electric furnace, yet its use is widespread because of the low energy cost
111. Cast iron normally consists of a Fe-Si-C system. However, by substituting the Si with Al, Fe-Al-C system cast iron is possible.
112. C. Defranq et al.: Proceedings of the 40th International Conference, Moscow, 3 (1973) 129
113. Some minor elements such as trace S also influence chilling
114. Egami Y. et al., Soseitokakou. 36 (1997) 941 (in Japanese)
115. Nakamura Y. Egami Y. and Shimizu K., SAE Paper 960302.
116. Hydrodynamic technologies, Home page: http://www. hdt-gti.com, (2003).
117. Müller H. and Kaiser: A., SAE Paper 970001.
118. Masuda M., et al., SAE Paper 970002.
119. Nippon piston ring, Home page: http://www.npr.co.jp, (2003). Sokeizai, 1(2003) 31.
120. Iwata T., Nainenkikan, 4 (1965) 57 (in Japanese).
121. The data is measured using a temperature-measuring valve. This experimental valve is first made from a material (for example, JIS-SUJ2) showing temper softening during operation. After the engine operation, the decreased hardness of the valve can be used to estimate the temperature with reference to the master curve. It is similar to the method to estimate the piston temperature (Chapter 3). In addition, the hardness change of the electrode metal of a plug can be used to evaluate the combustion state in the combustion chamber. The hardness change of the parts exposed to heat can be used to estimate the operating temperature. It is simple and convenient in performance development. The following is a general review.
122. Asakura S. et al.: Jidoushagijutu, 33 (1979) 775 (in Japanese).
123. oC.
124. oC
125. Tsuda M. and Nemoto R., The 5th Nishiyama Kinen Gijutsu Kouza, Nihon Tekkoukyoukai, (1994) 135 (in Japanese).
126. Friction welding: Corona Publishing, Tokyo, (1979) (in Japanese)
127. Dawes C.J., Weld Met. Fabr., 63(1995)13.
128. Nittan Valve Co., Ltd. Company guide, (1997).
129. Tomituka K., Nainenkikannorekishi, Sanei Publishing, (1987), 104 (in Japanese).
130. Takeuchi H., et al.: Yousetsu Gijutsu, September, (1985) 20 (in Japanese).
131. FUJI OOZX Inc. catalogue, (2000).
132. The recently modified gas nitriding can give a homogeneous nitrided layer
133. Ni is expensive. An engine valve without Ni has been developed. Sato K. et al. Honda R & D Technical Review, 9 (1997) 185 (in Japanese).
134. Moergenthaler K., Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Ceramic Materials and Components for Engines. Edited by Niihara K. et al., (1997) 46.
135. Yamaguchi T., et al., SAE Paper 2000-01-0905.
136. Mouri A., et al. Titan, 50 (2002) 45 (in Japanese).
137. Maki K., et al. SAE Paper 96030.
138. Blum M., et al., Mater. Sci. Eng., A329-331 (2002) 616.
139. Takayama I. and Yamazaki T., Shinnitetu Gihou, 375 (2001) 118 (in Japanese).
140. Yamashita Y., et al., Nippon Steel Technical report, 85 (2002) 11.
141. Fujii H., Takahashi K. and Yamashita Y., Shinnitetu Gihou, 378 (2003) 62 (in Japanese).
142. The lead in the valve seat material was first added by aiming at a similar effect to leaded gasoline. Initially, a lead content of about 4% was used.
143. Kawakita T., et al., Proceedings of 1973 International Powder Metallurgy Conference, eds Hauser H.H. and Smith W.E., Metal Powder Industries Federation and American Powder Metallurgy Institute. Recently, the Cu or Pb content or the addition itself tends to decrease.
144. Spring steels occur in two types. (i) The spring property results from heat treatment after shaping. (ii) The spring is shaped from pre-heat-treated steel. The latter occurs as piano wires, for which cold working gives the spring property, and oil-tempered wires, for which the spring property results from quenching and tempering. Piano wire has a microstructure of strained pearlite, while the oil-tempered wire has one of tempered martensite. Piano wire is likely to remain difficult to curl and hard to produce with a sufficiently thick diameter.
145. Chuo Spring Co., Ltd., Corporate Catalogue, (2003) (in Japanese).
146. Ibaraki N. R&D Kobe steel engineering report, 50(2000)27 (in Japanese).
147. Chuo Spring Co., Ltd., Corporate Catalogue, (1997) (in Japanese).
148. Takamura N., in Japan Society for Spring Research homepage, http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp, (2003) (in Japanese).
149. The spring limit value is defined as a limit stress after repeated deflection. Springs do not experience plastic deformation if used within the prescribed value. Copperalloy springs use low-temperature annealing to raise the spring limit value.
150. H. Yamagata and O. Izumi Nippon Kinzoku Gakkaishi, 44 (1990) 982 (in Japanese). Cold working (including secondary working such as drawing or bending) is likely to cause stress corrosion cracking due to high residual stress. The season cracking in brass is well known. Low-temperature annealing is effective as a countermeasure.
151. Shot peening can introduce higher residual stress, as the original hardness of the worked piece is higher. It also prevents heat checking of casting molds (hot die steel). Shot peening technology resulted from research by GM.
152. Suto H., Zanryuouryokuto Yugami, Tokyo, Uchida Roukakuho Publishing, (1988), 98 (in Japanese).
153. Metals Handbook 8th ed, vol. 1, Ohio, ASM, (1961) 163.
154. The applied stress changes the spacing of crystal lattice planes. X-ray diffraction techniques can count the direction and quantity of the principal stress through measuring changes in spacing.
155. Boileau J.M., et al., SAE Paper 2003-01-0822.
156. Unlike cast iron, the swarf is likely to tangle in the cutting tool and this lowers productivity. The best machining condition is selected in order not to cause such a problem.
157. The assembled crankshaft for a two-stroke engine is designed by taking its volume into consideration, because the engine constitutionally compresses the combustion gas in the crankcase. To get a high compression ratio, the dead space volume in the crankcase should be minimized.
158. Hayashi Y., Reesuyou NA Engine, Tokyo, Grand Prix Publisher, (1993) 125 (in Japanese).
159. Forging Handbook, Forging Handbook-Editing Committee, Tokyo, Nikkan Kougyou Shinbunsha, (1971) 7 (in Japanese)
160. Sakai T., Nippon Kinzoku Gakkai Kaihou, 22 (1983) 1036 (in Japanese).
161. Saishin Soseikakou Youran, Nippon Soseikakou Kyoukai, (1986) 194 (in Japanese)
162. Keikinzoku Tanzou Techou, ed. by Tanzou Techou Bukai, (1995) (in Japanese).
163. Hot forging heats the billet first. Then, the forging proceeds continuously through drawing, blocking, finishing and deburring. Reheating is not generally implemented at each stage. In hammer forging, the operator transfers and revolves the heated material manually. Even a complicated form can be shaped with a small number of dies. If a skilled worker can be hired, this is appropriate for a small lot size. By contrast, in press forging, the operator does not carry out skilled work like that in hammer forging, they just transfer the workpiece, so that each stamp needs a different die. For example, the connecting rod requires one shaping die and one trimming die in hammer forging. By contrast, it requires more than twenty dies in press forging, and the press machine has several dies installed in one platen. The workpiece is transferred automatically. Accordingly, it is expensive for production runs of less than 100,000.
164. Ochi T., et al., Nippon steel technical report, 80 (1999) 19.
165. oC.
166. Netsushori Gijutsu Binran, ed. by Nihon Netsushori Gijutsu Kyoukai, Tokyo, Nikkan Kougyou Shinbunsha Publishing, (2000) 66 (in Japanese).
167. There are other methods such as pack carburizing, liquid (bath) carburizing or vacuum carburizing. They have rather low productivity.
168. Straightening of distorted carburized parts should be avoided because it frequently causes fine cracks in the surface
169. ALD Vacuum Technologies AG., Homepage, http://www.ald-vt.com, (2003).
170. Kowalewski J., SECO/WARWICK Corporation, Homepage, http:// www.secowarwick.com, (2003).
171. Naitou T., Tekkouzairyouwo Ikasu Netsushorigijutsu, ed. by Ohwaku S., Tokyo, Agune Publishing, (1982) 27 (in Japanese).
172. Maki M., Sanyo Technical Report, 2(1995) 2 (in Japanese).
173. Kinzoku Netsushori Gijutsu Binran, ed. by Asada H., et al., Tokyo, Nikkan Kougyou Shinbunsha, (1961) 212 (in Japanese).
174. Liquid carburizing is implemented at temperatures above A1 in a molten cyanide bath. The carbon diffuses from the bath into the metal and produces a case comparable with one resulting from gas carbonitriding in an atmosphere containing some ammonia. The composition of the case produced distinguishs it from cyaniding. The cyaniding case is higher in nitrogen and lower in carbon. Liquid nitriding employs the same temperature range as for gas nitriding. As in liquid carburizing and cyaniding, the case hardening medium is molten cyanide. Liquid nitriding adds more nitrogen and less carbon to the steel than do cyaniding and carburizing in cyanide bath.
175. Cr-Mo steels do not contain sufficient alloying elements for nitriding, so that the steels cannot generate sufficient hardness. However, the fatigue strength and wear resistance are improved.
176. Nitriding is carried out in the temperature range where 〈 -iron exists. At a higher temperature, despite the high diffusion rate of N, nitrides are difficult to form. By contrast, carburizing is carried out at the austenite region. It uses the property that much carbon dissolves into austenite.
177. The Japanese sword has a beautiful curve. It has a composite structure, comprising both inner low carbon portion and outer high carbon portion. The quench hardening mainly takes place at the edge. This introduces an additional curvature to the sword. The curvature depends on the strain during quenching. The resultant subtle curvature is unpredictable, but it should be adjusted at proper value. If it is carried out seriously, even heat treatment becomes an art. Inoue T., Materials Science Research Int., 3, (1997) 193.
178. Wtanabe Y., Narita N. and Murakami Y., Nissan Gihou, 50(2002)68.
179. Yamagata H., et al., SAE paper 2003-01-0916.
180. Loveless D., et al., Heat treatment of metals, 2(2001)27. This book summarizes induction hardening and heating.
181. Rudnev V., et al. Handbook of Induction Heating, New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc., (2003).
182. Induction hardening also defines effective case depth and total case depth. The effective case depth is larger for a higher carbon content. For example, the values for S45C and S50C are defined as the distance having the hardness values above 450 HV (JIS 0559). In Fig. 8.23, the effective case depth measures 0.7 mm and the total case depth 1 mm.
183. Suto H., Kikaizairyougaku, Tokyo, Corona Publishing, (1985) 110 (in Japanese).
184. Hashimura M., et al. Shinnitesu gihou, 378(2003) 68 (in Japanese).
185. Nishida K. and Sato T., Sumitomokinzoku, 48(1996) 35 (in Japanese).
186. Takada H. and Koyasu Y., Nippon steel technical report, 64(1995) 7.
187. Ikeda M. and Anan G., R&D Kobe steel engineering report, 52(2002) 47 (in Japanese).
188. Sato S., Sanyo technical report, 8(2001)68 (in Japanese).
189. Kaiso M. and Chiba M., R&D Kobe steel engineering reports, 52(2002) 52 (in Japanese).
190. To develop a new engine having a large displacement volume, the bore of a small engine is increased. This increase can raise output power while retaining the basic layout of the previous small engine. The crankcase can be used with only an additional small adjustment. This method can develop a light compact engine, although it raises the stress in the materials. Additional surface treatment or material change, etc., should overcome the problems.
191. Tekkouzairyou Binran, ed. by Sato T., Nippon Kinzoku Gakkai and Nippon Tekkou Kyoukai, Tokyo, Maruzen Co., Ltd., (1967) 334 (in Japanese).
192. The steps to strengthen the crankshaft manufactured by BMW are introduced
193. Conradt G., MTZ, 64(2003)135.
194. The assembled crankshaft consists of several parts. A forging machine with a small capacity can forge these parts, resulting in lower costs than for the monolithic crankshaft, along with lower machining costs.
195. Without a retainer, the rollers of a needle bearing are likely to cause abnormal motion called skew, which leads to seizure or abnormal wear. The retainer maintains the intervals between the rollers to avoid this motion. Also, the roller does not have a perfect cylindrical shape but has a barrel shape, which prevents skew. The needle roller rolls with slip. The shaking of a crankpin and con-rod increases the slip. With sufficient lubricating oil, a plain bearing is suitable and costs less. Despite the low friction loss at the big end, no car engine presently uses a needle roller bearing for the big end.
196. Junkatsu Handbook, ed. by Japanese Tribology Association, Tokyo, Youkendou Publishing, (1987) 746 (in Japanese).
197. The small roller bearings have been improved by the development of high-power motorcycle engines.
198. Okuse H., et al.: SETC Technical Paper 911279.
199. Koyanagi A., Tekkouzairyouwoikasu Netsushori, ed. by Oowaku S., Tokyo, Agune Publishing, (1982) 169 (in Japanese).
200. The defect size detrimental to rolling contact fatigue life is in the order of 10 μm. The critical size is smaller by one order than that required for a valve spring or a general machine part.
201. Fukuda K., Tribologist, 48(2003)165 (in Japanese).
202. Katou K., Sanyo Technical Report, 2 (1995) 15 (in Japanese).
203. Tetsugadekirumade, ed. by Nihon Tekkou Renmei, (1984) (in Japanese).
204. Tsuzuku H. and Tsuchida N., Yamaha Gijutsukai Gihou, 19 (1995) 20 (in Japanese).
205. Fukuoka T., et al., SAE Paper 830308.
206. Kamiya S., et al., Tribologist, 44(1999)728 (in Japanese).
207. Bierlein J.C. et al., SAE Paper 690113.
208. Ito H., Kamiya S. and Kumada K. Tribologist, 48(2003)172 (in Japanese).
209. Weber M., SAE Paper 910157.
210. Catalogue of Alfing Kessler Sondermaschinen GmbH, (2000)
211. Mocarski S. and Hall D.W., SAE Paper 870133.
212. Park H., et al., SAE Paper 2003-01-1309.
213. Kubota T., et al., SAE Paper 2004-32-0064.
214. Ebespracher Co., Ltd, Catalogue, (2003).
215. Muraki H., Engine technology, 3(2001) 20 (in Japanese.)
216. Daihatsu, Homepage, http://www.daihatsu.com, (2002).
217. Nishihata Y., et al., Nature, 418(2002)164.
218. Itoh I., et al., Nippon steel technical report, 64(1995)69.
219. Hasuno S. and Satoh S., Kawasakiseitetsu gihou, 32(2000)76 (in Japanese).
220. Imai A., et al., Nippon steel technical report, 84(2001)1.
221. Takami A., SAE Paper 950746.
222. Hori, H., SAE Paper 972850.
223. Takahashi N., Catalysts Today, 27(1996)63.
224. Hachisuka I., SAE Paper 20011196.
225. Noda A., JSAE paper 20014525 (in Japanese).
226. Wiehl J. and Vogt C.D., MTZ, 64(2003)113.
227. Knon H., Brensheidt T. and Florchinger P., MTZ, 9(2001)662.
228. Rhodia, Homepage, http://www.rhodia.ext.imaginet.fr, (2003).
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