The crescent and the sword: Islam, the military, and political legitimacy in Pakistan, 1977-1985

Middle East Journal

Volumn 50, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 372-385

  Ahmad, Mumtaz ^a  

^a HAMPTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 3743129840     PISSN: 00263141     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (54)

1. See Henry Bienen, "The Background to Contemporary Study of Militaries and Modernization," in Henry Bienen, ed. The Military and Modernization (Chicago: Alsine Atherton Press, 1971); Claude E. Welch, ed., Soldiers and State in Africa: A Comparative Analysis of Military Intervention and Political Change (Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1970); Beragt Abrahamsson, Military Professionalization and Political Power (Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1972); Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1977); and Constantine P. Danopoulos, "Military Professionalism and Regime Legitimacy in Greece, 1967-1974," Political Science Quarterly 98, no. 3 (Fall, 1983).
2. See Henry Bienen, "The Background to Contemporary Study of Militaries and Modernization," in Henry Bienen, ed. The Military and Modernization (Chicago: Alsine Atherton Press, 1971); Claude E. Welch, ed., Soldiers and State in Africa: A Comparative Analysis of Military Intervention and Political Change (Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1970); Beragt Abrahamsson, Military Professionalization and Political Power (Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1972); Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1977); and Constantine P. Danopoulos, "Military Professionalism and Regime Legitimacy in Greece, 1967-1974," Political Science Quarterly 98, no. 3 (Fall, 1983).
3. See Henry Bienen, "The Background to Contemporary Study of Militaries and Modernization," in Henry Bienen, ed. The Military and Modernization (Chicago: Alsine Atherton Press, 1971); Claude E. Welch, ed., Soldiers and State in Africa: A Comparative Analysis of Military Intervention and Political Change (Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1970); Beragt Abrahamsson, Military Professionalization and Political Power (Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1972); Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1977); and Constantine P. Danopoulos, "Military Professionalism and Regime Legitimacy in Greece, 1967-1974," Political Science Quarterly 98, no. 3 (Fall, 1983).
4. See Henry Bienen, "The Background to Contemporary Study of Militaries and Modernization," in Henry Bienen, ed. The Military and Modernization (Chicago: Alsine Atherton Press, 1971); Claude E. Welch, ed., Soldiers and State in Africa: A Comparative Analysis of Military Intervention and Political Change (Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1970); Beragt Abrahamsson, Military Professionalization and Political Power (Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1972); Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1977); and Constantine P. Danopoulos, "Military Professionalism and Regime Legitimacy in Greece, 1967-1974," Political Science Quarterly 98, no. 3 (Fall, 1983).
5. See Henry Bienen, "The Background to Contemporary Study of Militaries and Modernization," in Henry Bienen, ed. The Military and Modernization (Chicago: Alsine Atherton Press, 1971); Claude E. Welch, ed., Soldiers and State in Africa: A Comparative Analysis of Military Intervention and Political Change (Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1970); Beragt Abrahamsson, Military Professionalization and Political Power (Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1972); Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1977); and Constantine P. Danopoulos, "Military Professionalism and Regime Legitimacy in Greece, 1967-1974," Political Science Quarterly 98, no. 3 (Fall, 1983).
6. Danopoulos, "Military Professionalism and Regime Legitimacy," p. 505.
7. Ibid.
8. Morris Janowitz, Military Institutions and Coercion in Developing Nations (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1977), pp. 161-66.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid., pp. 116-19.
11. Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics, pp. 137-38.
12. The best analysis so far of Bhutto's rise and fall, and an extremely perceptive critique of his socio-economic policies is found in Shahid Javed Burki, Pakistan Under Bhutto (New York: St Martin's Press, 1982); see also Khalid Bin Sayeed, Politics in Pakistan: the Nature and Direction of Change (New York: Praeger, 1982).
13. The best analysis so far of Bhutto's rise and fall, and an extremely perceptive critique of his socio-economic policies is found in Shahid Javed Burki, Pakistan Under Bhutto (New York: St Martin's Press, 1982); see also Khalid Bin Sayeed, Politics in Pakistan: the Nature and Direction of Change (New York: Praeger, 1982).
14. Mumtaz Ahmad, "Class, Religion, and Power: Some Aspects of Islamic Resurgence in Pakistan," a paper presented at a conference on Islamic revival, University of Chicago, 28-31 May 1980.
15. Dawn (Karachi), 30 September 1977.
16. Daily Muslim (Islamabad), 14 October 1980; see also, President Zia-ul-Haq's interview with MJ. Akbar in Sunday (New Delhi), 13-19 June 1982, p. 17.
17. Daily Muslim (Islamabad), 14 October 1980; see also, President Zia-ul-Haq's interview with MJ. Akbar in Sunday (New Delhi), 13-19 June 1982, p. 17.
18. For details of these reforms see, Mumtaz Ahmad, "Islamic Revival in Pakistan," in C.K. Pullapilly, ed., Islam in the Contemporary World (Notredame: Crossroads Press, 1981).
19. See, Nawa-i-Waqt (Lahore), 11 February 1979, and Zindagi; (Lahore), 18-25 January 1975.
20. See, Nawa-i-Waqt (Lahore), 11 February 1979, and Zindagi; (Lahore), 18-25 January 1975.
21. Jasarat (Karachi), 17 January 1981.
22. 8 Days (London), 5 December 1981, p. 21,
23. and 9 January 1982, p. 27.
24. Constitutional Framework: President Zia-ul-Haq's Address to Majlis-e-Shoora on August 12, 1983, (Washington, DC: Information Division, Embassy of Pakistan, 1983). See also Craig Baxter, ed.. Zia's Pakistan: Politics and Stability in a Front Line State (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1985).
25. Constitutional Framework: President Zia-ul-Haq's Address to Majlis-e-Shoora on August 12, 1983, (Washington, DC: Information Division, Embassy of Pakistan, 1983). See also Craig Baxter, ed.. Zia's Pakistan: Politics and Stability in a Front Line State (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1985).
26. President Zia-ul-Haq's speech in the 8th session of the Federal Advisory Council, reported in Nawa-i-Waqt, 23 October 1983.
27. See a statement by Maulana 'Abdallah Darkhwasti, the chief of Jam'iyat-i-'Ulama-i-Islam, published in Mashriq (Karachi), 26 April 1983, in which he said that his party would not support MRD because it was dominated by 'communist and anti-Islamic elements.'
28. Aijaz Ahmed, "Democracy and Dictatorship," in Hasan Gardezi and Jamil Rashid, eds., Pakistan: The Roots of Dictatorship (London: Zed Press, 1983), pp. 90-97, 141.
29. See the statement of Mufti Ja'afar Husayn Mujtahid, the Shi'ite member of the Islamic Advisory Council who resigned from his post to protest the introduction of these laws, in weekly Millat (Islamabad), 26 September, 1979.
30. Mumtaz Ahmad, "Islamic Revival in Pakistan."
31. Viewpoint (Lahore), 24 February 1983, p. 7.
32. See the statement of the President of the Imamiya Council of Pakistan, in Jasarat, 2 February 1983.
33. Jasarat, 8 February 1983.
34. Jasarat, 9 February 1983. It also reported that a week before the Shi'ite sit-in in Karachi, a powerful Iranian delegation headed by the militant Jalal al-Din Farsi, an opponent of Bani Sadr in the first Iranian presidential elections, had visited Pakistan. While in Karachi, he had a series of meetings with local Shi'ite leaders, including militant Shi'ite youth leaders. In an interview before leaving Karachi, Farsi explained that his mission in Pakistan was to "show. . . [the Pakistani people] on the spot how Islamic revolution works" and "to transfer to them our experience in making revolution and to exploit interior and exterior policies to that end." See South (London), April 1983; and Economist (London), 26 March 1983.
35. Jasarat, 9 February 1983. It also reported that a week before the Shi'ite sit-in in Karachi, a powerful Iranian delegation headed by the militant Jalal al-Din Farsi, an opponent of Bani Sadr in the first Iranian presidential elections, had visited Pakistan. While in Karachi, he had a series of meetings with local Shi'ite leaders, including militant Shi'ite youth leaders. In an interview before leaving Karachi, Farsi explained that his mission in Pakistan was to "show. . . [the Pakistani people] on the spot how Islamic revolution works" and "to transfer to them our experience in making revolution and to exploit interior and exterior policies to that end." See South (London), April 1983; and Economist (London), 26 March 1983.
36. Jasarat, 9 February 1983. It also reported that a week before the Shi'ite sit-in in Karachi, a powerful Iranian delegation headed by the militant Jalal al-Din Farsi, an opponent of Bani Sadr in the first Iranian presidential elections, had visited Pakistan. While in Karachi, he had a series of meetings with local Shi'ite leaders, including militant Shi'ite youth leaders. In an interview before leaving Karachi, Farsi explained that his mission in Pakistan was to "show. . . [the Pakistani people] on the spot how Islamic revolution works" and "to transfer to them our experience in making revolution and to exploit interior and exterior policies to that end." See South (London), April 1983; and Economist (London), 26 March 1983.
37. Nawa-i-Waqt, 11 February 1983.
38. Economist, 26 March 1983, p. 40.
39. International Herald Tribune (Paris), 26-27 March 1983, p. 5.
40. See the editorial comments in the New Trend, September 1983; and Javed Ansari, "Pakistan Revisited," Arabia: The Islamic World Review (London), June 1983.
41. See the editorial comments in the New Trend, September 1983; and Javed Ansari, "Pakistan Revisited," Arabia: The Islamic World Review (London), June 1983.
42. We have left out the events associated with the rise of Muhajir ethnicity and the Muhajir Qawmi Movement (MQM) in the urban Sind as they fall outside the time-frame of this study. For a perceptive analysis of Pakistan's regional problems, see Tahir Amin, Ethno-National Movements in Pakistan (Islamabad: Institute of Policy Studies, 1991).
43. For a sensitive analysis of the socio-economic and sub-nationalist forces at work in the Sind province, see Tahir Amin, Jiye Sind Tahrik, mimeograph (Islamabad: Institute of Policy Studies, 1979).
44. Selig Harrison, "Nightmare in Baluchistan," Foreign Policy, no. 32 (Fall 1978), p. 139.
45. Amitai Etzioni, A Comparative Analysis of Complex Organizations (New York: The Free Press, 1975), pp. 4-6.
46. See General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Interviews to Foreign Media, Vol. 1, (Islamabad: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, n.d.), pp. 18-21; 69-70; 117-24; 200-205.
47. Ibid., pp. 118-21.
48. Dawn, 27 October 1982.
49. Muslim, 10 June 1980.
50. Dawn, 1 January 1980 and Muslim, 2 February 1980.
51. Dawn, 1 January 1980 and Muslim, 2 February 1980.
52. Ernest W. Lefever, Spear and Sceptre: Army, Police and Parliament in Tropical Africa (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1970), p. 21.
53. 8 Days, 5 December 1981.
54. See the statement of A. Ghafoor Ahmad, the vice-president of Jama'at-i-Islami, in The Pakistan Times Overseas Weekly, 4 December 1983.