Naturalizing federalism: Insect outbreaks and the centralization of entomological research in Canada, 1884-1914

Canadian Historical Review

Volumn 85, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 1-34

  Castonguay, Stéphane ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 37249080154     PISSN: 00083755     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3138/CHR.85.1.1     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. In a recent article, Richard White showed how this problem concerns not only environmental historians but also historians of different specialties. Richard White, 'The Nationalization of Nature,' Journal of American History 85 (Dec. 1999): 976-86
2. Among many others, see Thomas R. Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1988)
3. Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problems: Ecology and Law in California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1986)
4. as well as the less recent studies by A. Hunter Dupree, Science in the Federal Government (1957; Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 1986)
5. and Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1959)
6. Although best exemplified by studies of the Progressive Era, with scientific experts providing objective knowledge for the formulation of policies (for example, Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency), this phenomenon became widespread after the Second World War
7. See, among others, Samuel P. Hays, Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1987)
8. Ronald Brickman et al., Controlling Chemicals: The Politics of Regulation in Europe and the United States (Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1985)
9. Liora Salter, Mandated Science: Science and Scientists in the Making of Standards (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers 1988)
10. Particularly informative is Kurkpatrick Dorsey, The Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy: U.S.-Canadian Wildlife Protection Treaties in the Progressive Era (Seattle: University of Washington Press 1998)
11. See also Sheila Jasanoff, 'Contingent Knowledge: Implications for Implementation and Compliance,' in Edith Brown Weiss and Harold K. Jacobson, eds., Engaging Countries: Strengthening Compliance with International Environmental Accords (Cambridge: MIT Press 1998), 64-87
12. The history of scientific forestry is a case in point, covering different time periods and different regions. See, for example, Nancy Peluso, Rich Forest, Poor People (Berkeley: University of California Press 1992)
13. Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant. Resistance in the Himalaya (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1992)
14. Henry E. Lowood, 'The Calculating Forester: Quantification, Cameral Science, and the Emergence of Scientific Forestry Management in Germany,' in Tore Frangmyr, John L. Heilbron, and Robin E. Rider, eds., The Quantifying Spirit in the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press 1991), 315-42
15. James C. Scott has provided us with a refreshing perspective on the relationships between state activities and scientific expertise. See his Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press 1998)
16. Vittorio M.G. de Vecchi, 'Science and Government in Nineteenth-Century Canada' (PhD dissertation, University of Toronto 1978)
17. Douglas Owram, The Government Generation: Canadian Intellectuals and the State, 1900-1945 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1986)
18. A.B. McKillop, Contours of Canadian Thought (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1987)
19. Yves Gingras, Les origines de la recherche scientifique au Canada (Montreal: Boréal 1991)
20. While historians of economic entomology have focused on environmental regulations related to insect control products, very few have dealt with quarantine issues. See, for example, James Whorton, Before Silent Spring: Pesticides and Public Health in Pre-DDT America (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1974)
21. Thomas R. Dunlap, DDT: Scientists, Citizens, and Public Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1981)
22. C.J. Bosso, Pesticides and Politics: The Life Cycle of a Public Issue (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1987)
23. Edmund Russell, War and Nature: Fighting Humans and Insects with Chemicals from World War I to Silent Spring (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2001)
24. On quarantine regulations, see Robert Boyce, 'Insects and International Relations: Canada, France, and British Agricultural Sanitary Import Restrictions between the Wars,' International History Review 9 (winter 1987): 1-27
25. Philip Pauly, 'The Beauty and Menace of the Japanese Cherry Trees,' Isis 87 (March 1996): 51-73
26. On the early relationships between Canadian and American entomologists, see P. Palladino, Entomology, Ecology and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careers in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam: Harwood 1996), 48-9
27. John E. Hodgetts, Pioneer Public Service: An Administrative History of the United Canadas, 1841-1867 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1955)
28. Vernon C. Fowke, Canadian Agricultural Policy: The Historical Pattern (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1946)
29. On agricultural research at the end of the nineteenth century, see Margaret W. Rossiter, 'The Organization of the Agricultural Sciences,' in A. Oleson and J. Voss, eds., The Organization of Knowledge in Modern America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 1979), 211-48
30. On early Canadian entomology, see J.T.H. O'Connor, 'Of Butterfly Nets and Beetle Bottles: The Entomological Society of Canada, 1863-1960,' History of Science and Technology in Canada Bulletin 6 (Sept. 1982): 151-71
31. On agriculture and the Ontario government, see John E. Hodgetts, From Arm's Length to Hands-On: The Formative Years of Ontario's Public Service, 1867-1940 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1995)
32. On the beginning of American entomology, see W. Conner Sorensen, Brethren of the Net: American Entomology, 1840-1880 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press 1995)
33. and Hae-Gyung Geong, 'Exerting Control: Biology and Bureaucracy in the Development of American Entomology, 1870-1930' (PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison 1999)
34. On the Division of Entomology (1863-1904) and its elevation to bureau status in the United States Department of Agriculture, see Gustavus A. Weber, The Bureau of Entomology: Its History, Activities and Organization (Washington: Brookings Institution 1930)
35. On agricultural problems in Canada, see Government of Canada, 'Report of the Select Committee Appointed to Inquire into the Best Means of Encouraging and Developing the Agricultural Industries of Canada,' Journal of the House of Commons 18 (1884): 25-6
36. Fowke, Canadian Agricultural Policy, 221
37. On Fletcher, see Arnold Mallis, American Entomologist (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press 1971), 107-10
38. Paul W. Riegert, 'James Fletcher,' Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 12 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1995), 376-7
39. R.B. Whyte, 'Dr. Fletcher as a Botanist,' Ottawa Naturalist 22 (1909): 206-7
40. A. Gibson, 'Dr. Fletcher as an Entomologist,' Ottawa Naturalist 22 (1909): 207-11
41. On inventory sciences in Canada, see Suzanne Zeller, Inventing Canada: Early Victorian Science and the Idea of a Transcontinental Nation (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1987), and de Vecchi, 'Science and Government in Nineteenth-Century Canada.'
42. Government of Canada, Sessional Papers, 1885, no. 10, 'Report of the Entomologist and Botanist: Annex to the Report of the Minister of Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada,' 366-8
43. Charles J.S. Bethune, "The Rise and Progress of Entomology in Canada,' Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 2nd Series, 4 (1898): 155-65
44. Leland Oswald Howard, A History of Applied Entomology (Somewhat Anecdoctal) (Washington: Smithsonian Institution 1930), 184-5
45. On Fletcher's activities, see Paul W. Riegert, From Arsenic to DDT: A History of Entomology in Western Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1980), 86
46. Government of Canada, Sessional Papers, 1897, no. 8A, 'Report of the Entomologist and Botanist: Annex to the Report of the Minister of Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada'
47. H. Seftel, 'Government Regulation and the Rise of the California Fruit Industry: The Entrepreneurial Attack on Fruit Pests, 1880-1920,' Business History Review 59 (fall 1985): 369-402
48. L.O. Howard, 'Legislation against Injurious Insects: A Compilation of the Laws and Regulations in the United States and British Columbia,' United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, Bulletin, no. 33 (1898); Geong, 'Exerting Control,' 213
49. Fifth Report of the Department of Agriculture of the Province of British Columbia, 1895-1896 (Victoria: British Columbia Department of Agriculture 1897), 1086
50. On insect control in British Columbia, see Riegert, From Arsenic to DDT, 101-94
51. Ontario Fruit Growers' Association, Annual Report for the Year 1897, 29 (1898): 74
52. Cook provides a detailed account of the fight against the San José scale in Ontario. See George M. Cook, '"Spray, Spray, Spray!": Insecticides and the Making of Applied Entomology in Canada, 1871-1914,' Scientia Canadensis 22-3 (1998-9): 7-50
53. Government of Canada, 'Report of the Select Standing Committee on Agriculture and Colonization (Evidence of James Fletcher),' Canada, House of Commons, Journal, 60-61 Victoria, A. 1897, Appendix no. 2 (Ottawa: Queen's Printer 1897), 95
54. Fourth Report of the Department of Agriculture of the Province of British Columbia, 1893-1894 (Victoria: British Columbia Department of Agriculture 1895), 1059
55. Zeller, Inventing Canada, 215-16
56. On the American situation, see Gustavus Weber, The Plant Quarantine and Control Administration: Its History, Activities and Organization (Washington: Brookings Institution 1930)
57. L.O. Howard, "The Department of Agriculture in Relation to a National Law to Prevent the Importation of Insect-Infested or Diseased Plants,' U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Secretary, Circular 37 (1911): 11
58. L.O. Howard, 'Danger of Importing Insect Pest,' Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1897 (Washington: Government Printing Office 1898), 529-52
59. Pauly, 'The Beauty and Menace of the Japanese Cherry Trees,' 58
60. Geong, 'Exerting Control.'
61. C.H. Merriam, 'The Geographic Distribution of Animals and Plants in North America,' Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1894 (Washington: Government Printing Office 1895), 203-14
62. L.O. Howard and C.L. Marlatt, 'The San José Scale: Its Occurrences in the United States,' U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology Bulletin, New Series 3 (1896)
63. On Merriam, see Keir B. Sterling, Last of the Naturalists: The Career of C. Hart Merriam (New York: Arno 1974)
64. Government of Canada, Evidence of Dr. James Fletcher, Entomologist and Botanist, Dominion Experimental Farms, before the Select Standing Committee of the House of Commons on Agriculture and Colonization. Session of 1897 (Ottawa: Queen's Printer 1898), 15; National Archives of Canada (NA), RG 17, AI 7, Dominion Entomologist and Botanist Letterbook, vol. 2343, James Fletcher to William Saunders [Experimental Farms Branch, director], 14 June 1897
65. On foreign legislation concerning the San José scale, see Howard, History of Applied Entomology, 121-3
66. 'Regulations of Foreign Governments regarding Importation of American Plants, Trees, and Fruits,' United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, Circular 41 (1900)
67. Government of Canada, Statutes, 61 Victoria, chap. 23 (1898), 107-8
68. Cook, '"Spray, Spray, Spray!"' 28-9
69. Government of Canada, Sessional Papers, 1901, no. 16, 'Report of the Entomologist and Botanist: Annex to the Report of the Minister of Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada,' 245
70. Government of Canada, Statutes, 63-4 Victoria, chap. 31 (1900), 213
71. Official Report of the Debates of the House of Commons of the Dominion of Canada, 2nd Sess. 11th Parl., 61 Victoria, 1898, 46 (Ottawa: Queen's Printer 1898), 1928. Six fumigation stations were established a year later in Saint John (New Brunswick), Saint-Jean (Quebec), Niagara Falls and Kingston (Ontario), Winnipeg (Manitoba), and Vancouver (British Columbia)
72. Annual Report of the Secretary for Agriculture of Nova Scotia for the Year 1908 (Halifax: Commissioner Public Works and Mines 1909), 21
73. Government of Canada, Sessional Papers, 1907, no. 16, 'Report of the Entomologist and Botanist: Annex to the Report of the Minister of Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada,' 47
74. F.T. Lord, 'The Development of Agricultural Entomology in Nova Scotia,' Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science 33 (1983): 19-46
75. NA, RG 17, AI 7, vol. 2343, George Atwood to Arthur Gibson, 10 June 1909
76. Arthur Gibson, 'Nests of the Brown-Tail Moth in Importations of French Nursery Stock, 1909,' Annual Report of the Entomological Society of Ontario 40 (1910): 19-20
77. De Vecchi, 'Science and Government'; McKillop, Contours of Canadian Thought; Gingras, Les origines de la recherche scientifique
78. On the Civil Service Act, see John Edwin Hodgetts, William McCloskey, Reginald Whitaker, and V. Seymour Wilson, The Biography of an Institution: The Civil Service Commission of Canada, 1908-1967 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press 1972)
79. Department of Agriculture, Fifty Years of Progress on Dominion Experimental Farms, 1886-1936 (Ottawa: King's Printer 1939)
80. De Vecchi, 'Science and Government'; Stéphane Castonguay 'Fédéralisme et centralisation de la recherche agricole au Canada. Dynamique scientifique et écologie institutionnelle,' Bulletin d'histoire politique 7 (1999): 21-39
81. T. H. Anstey, Cent moissons. Direction générale de la recherche. Agriculture Canada, 1886-1986 (Ottawa: Supply and Services 1986), 55
82. NA, RG 17, AI 10, Deputy Minister's Letterbooks, vol. 1767, 80, G.F. O'Halloran, Deputy Minister of Agriculture, to Adam Shortt and G. LaRochelle, Civil Service Commissioners, 21 May 1909. Saunders recommended the appointment of Arthur Gibson and W.T. Macoun, the dominion horticulturist, but the Civil Service Commission confirmed the selection of the minister of agriculture. NA, RG 17, AI 10, vol. 1848, W. Saunders to G.F. O'Hallaran, 23 Dec. 1908
83. On Hewitt, see Arthur Gibson and J.M. Swaine, 'Charles Gordon Hewitt,' Canadian Entomologist 52 (May 1920): 97-105
84. Paul W. Riegert, 'Charles Gordon Hewitt,' Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 13 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1996), 530-1
85. Alison Kraft, 'Building Manchester Biology, 1851-1963: National Agendas, Provincial Strategies' (PhD dissertation, University of Manchester 2000), 224-7
86. Carl Berger, The Sense of Power: Studies in the Ideas of Canadian Imperialism (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1970)
87. de Vecchi, 'Science and Government'; William A. Waiser, 'The Macoun-Merriam Connection,' History of Science and Technology in Canada, Bulletin 6 (March 1982), 3-9. Hewitt had been elected a foreign member of the American Association of Economic Entomologist in 1907 and had corresponded with Howard previous to his appointment (both were leading experts on the house fly). Howard supported his candidacy to the position. See National Archives and Record Administration (United States) (NARA), RG 7, Records of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, General records, E 34, box 181, Howard to Hewitt, 6 March 1909
88. On British economic entomology, see J.F.M. Clark, 'Bugs in the System: Insects, Agricultural Science, and Professional Aspirations in Britain, 1890-1920,' Agricultural History 75 (winter 2001): 83-114
89. On British students in America, see Howard, A History of Applied Entomology, 223-4; NARA, RG 7, E 34, box 81, 'Minutes of the Meeting of the Selection Sub-Committee of the Entomological Committee Held at the Colonial Office, Friday 23rd September, 1910.'
90. NA, RG 17, AI 1, Records of the Deputy Minister, General Correspondence, vol. 2764, file 202835, Memorandum on the Desirability of Further Legislation Dealing with the Introduction of Insect and Other Pests into the Dominion of Canada, C.G. Hewitt to W. Saunders, 25 Sept. 1909
91. On biology at Manchester, see J. Stanley Gardiner, 'Sydney John Hickson (1859-1940),' Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society 3 (London: Harrison & Sons 1941), 383-94
92. Kraft, 'Building Manchester Biology.' On biogeography and post-Darwinian ecology
93. see Pascal Acot, Histoire de l'écologie (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France 1988), 43-92
94. Jean-Paul Deléage, Histoire de l'écologie. Une science de l'homme et de la nature (Paris: La Découverte 1992), 61-101
95. Peter J. Bowler, The Norton History of Environmental Sciences (New York: Norton 1993), 366-7
96. Sharon Kingsland, 'Defining Ecology as a Science,' in Leslie A. Real and James H. Brown, eds., Foundations of Ecology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1991), 1-13
97. Donald Worster, Nature's Economy, 2nd ed, (New York: Cambridge University Press 1994), 190-220
98. On the 1877 Destructive Insects Act, see John F. Clark, 'Beetle Mania: The Colorado Beetle Scare of 1877,' History Today (Dec. 1992): 7
99. Government of Canada, Official Report of the Debates of the House of Commons of the Dominion of Canada, 2nd Sess., 11th parl., 9-10 Edward VII, 1909-1910, 93 (Ottawa: King's Printer 1910), 210
100. On the situation before the agreement, see NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 2763, file 202663, Report on the Inspection of the Dominion Fumigation Stations, C.G. Hewitt to G.F. O'Hallaran, 24 Nov. 1909; NARA, RG 7, E-34, box 181, Hewitt to Howard, 26 April 1911
101. Government of Canada, Official Report of the Debates, 95, 5949, 5665-6, 5673, 5974, 5894-5. On the relationships between provincial and federal authorities, see Riegert, From Arsenic to DDT, 75
102. NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 2763, file 202663, Memorandum on Amendments to the Regulations under the Destructive Insect and Pest Act, Rendered Necessary by the Consolidation of the Federal and Provincial Work of Inspection and Fumigation at Vancouver, C.G. Hewitt to G.F. O'Hallaran, 14 March 1912; NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 2764, file 202835, C.G. Hewitt to J.H. Grisdale, 8 April 1912; NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 2777, file 226492, Agreement between the Dominion and Provincial Departments of Agriculture Entered into on April 18, 1912; Government of Canada, Official Report of the Debates, 95, 211
103. NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 2777, file 226492, C.G. Hewitt to J.H. Grisdale, Director, Experimental Farms Branch, 5 March 1913; RG 13, vol. 2140, file 389/1913, 11-12 March 1913, Power of Province of B.C. to Prohibit Importation of Fruit from Places Infected by Insects; NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 3049, file 40-15 (1), Memorandum on Codling Moth Situation in British Columbia, by Treherne, Chief Division of Field Crop Insect, 20 May 1922
104. NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 1135, file 212063, C.G. Hewitt to J.H. Grisdale, 1 June 1912; NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 2777, file 226492, C.G. Hewitt to H.M. Burrell, 9 Jan. 1913; NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 2777, file 226492, Robert Matheson, Nova Scotia Provincial Entomologist, to M. Cumming, Nova Scotia Secretary for Agriculture, 12 Feb. 1913; Annual Report of the Secretary for Agriculture of Nova Scotia for the Year 1911 (Halifax: Commissioner Public Works and Mines 1912), 7-8
105. NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 1135, file 212063, C.G. Hewitt to G.F. O'Hallaran, 1 June 1912; NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 1135, file 234643, C.G. Hewitt to G.F. O'Hallaran, 24 March 1915
106. L.O. Howard, 'The Education of the Entomologists in the Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture,' Journal of Economic Entomology 7 (Oct. 1914): 280
107. Annual Report of the Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm (Toronto: Ontario Department of Agriculture 1910), 25
108. Government of Canada, Statutes, 9-10 Edward VII, chap. 31 (1910), 247-8
109. Charles G. Hewitt, 'Legislation in Canada to Prevent the Introduction and Spread of Insects, Pests and Diseases Destructive to Vegetation with Regulations Regarding the Importation of Vegetation into Canada,' Entomological Branch, Bulletin 6 (1912), 6
110. Government of Canada, Official Report of the Debates, 95, 5672; NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 2764, file 202835, C.G. Hewitt to G.F. O'Hallaran, 28 Feb. 1910. The only measure adopted was to provide every inspector with a trial period of thirty days, after which the minister confirmed the nomination
111. NA, RG 17, BII 2, Department of Agriculture Central Registry and Indexes, vol. 2887, file 14-22, Summary of Proposed Classification, C.G. Hewitt to J.H. Grisdale, 26 July 1919
112. 'Report of the Select Standing Committee on Agriculture and Colonization (Importance of Entomology in the Development of Canada. Evidence of Gordon Hewitt),' in Government of Canada, Canada, House of Commons, Journal, 9-10, Edward VII, A. 1910, Appendix no. 1 (Ottawa: King's Printer 1910), 18
113. Government of Canada, Sessional Papers, 1910, no. 16, 'Report of the Entomologist: Annex to the Report of the Minister of Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada,' 223, 226, 231-2
114. According to Glen, the budget provided for the enforcement of the Destructive Insect and Pest Act was the principal financial support for the Entomology Division and the only one for regional laboratories until 1934. Robert Glen, 'Entomology in Canada up to 1956: A Review of Developments and Accomplishments,' Canadian Entomologist 88 (July 1956), 295
115. Government of Canada, Official Report of the Debates, 95, 5975-6
116. Canada Gazette 43 (14 May 1910): 3503-4
117. Richard C. Sawyer, 'Monopolizing the Insect Trade: Biological Control in the USDA, 1888-1951,' Agricultural History 64 (spring 1990): 271-85
118. NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 2763, file 202663, C.G. Hewitt to William Saunders, 13 Dec. 1910; NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 1010, file 204425, C.G. Hewitt to J. H. Grisdale, 12 April 1913; NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 1010 , file 204425, C.G. Hewitt to W. Saunders, 31 March 1911
119. John D. Tothill, 'Progress of the Introduction of the Insect Enemies of the Brown-Tail Moth, Euproctis chrysorrhoea Linn. into New Brunswick and Some Biological Notes on the Host,' Annual Report of the Entomological Society of Ontario 43 (1913): 57-61
120. Government of Canada, Sessional Papers, 1913, no. 16, 'Report of the Entomologist: Annex to the Report of the Minister of Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada,' 512
121. L.S. McLaine, 'Rearing the Parasites of the Brown-Tail Moth in New England for Colonization in Canada,' Agricultural Gazette of Canada 3 (Jan. 1916): 23-5
122. On Tothill and McLaine, see A.B. Baird, 'John Douglas Totill,' Entomology Newsletter 33 (Sept. 1955): 2-3
123. and W.N. Keenan and C.R. Twinn, 'Leonad Septimus McLaine,' Canadian Entomologist 76 (Jan. 1944): 1-4
124. The spread of the outbreak ceased at the Canadian borders, where, according to Hewitt, the introduction of natural enemies of the brown-tail and gypsy moths had formed a natural barrier and hindered the colonization of the two insects up along the Atlantic coast. NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 2792, file 246824, C.G. Hewitt to G.F. O'Hallaran, 27 Feb. 1919
125. C.G. Hewitt, Report of the Dominion Entomologist and Consulting Zoologist for the Two Years 1917 and 1918 (Ottawa: King's Printer 1920), 10
126. John D. Tothill, 'Notes on the Outbreaks of Spruce Budworm, Forest Tent Caterpillar and Larch Sawfly in New Brunswick,' Proceedings of the Acadian Entomological Society 8 (1922): 172-82
127. J.D. Tothill, 'Some Notes on the Control of Foliage-Eating Insects under Forest Conditions,' Canadian Forestry Journal 14 (May 1918): 1673-5
128. J.D. Tothill, 'Natural Control Investigations in Canada,' Scientific Agriculture 2 (Sept. 1921): 21
129. On the growth of biological control in Canada, see Stéphane Castonguay, 'L'Institut de Belleville. Expansion et déclin de la recherche sur le contrôle biologique au Canada, 1909-1972,' Scientia Canadensis 22-23 (1999): 51-100
130. NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 1135, file 212063, J.H. Grisdale to G.F. O'Hallaran, 10 Aug. 1911; Memorandum on the Organisation for Inspection of Imported Nursery Stock and Memorandum on the Need of Field Laboratories for the Study of Orchard and Other Insects, C.G. Hewitt to G.F. Grisdale, July 24 1911
131. A fifth laboratory was set up in Fredericton for the biological control campaign. Government of Canada, 'Report of the Select Standing Committee on Agriculture and Colonization (Importance of Entomology in the Development of Canada. Evidence of Gordon Hewitt),' 17-18
132. NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 1135, file 212063, C.G. Hewitt to J.H. Grisdale, 20 Feb. 1912; NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 2777, file 226492, Memorandum on International Cooperation in the Investigation of the White Grub Problem, C.G. Hewitt to J.H. Grisdale, 6 May 1913; Government of Canada, Sessional Papers, 1914, no. 16, 'Report of the Entomologist: Annex to the Report of the Minister of Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada,' 875-7; NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 1135, file 212063, J.H. Grisdale to G.F. O'Hallaran, 10 Aug. 1911; NA, RG 17, AI 1, vol. 1135, file 212063, C.G. Hewitt to J.H. Grisdale, 19 March 1912
133. For a province-by-province survey of economic entomology in Canada, see 'The Control of Injurious Insects,' Agricultural Gazette of Canada 1 (Oct. 1914): 795-818
134. C. Gordon Hewitt, Report of the Dominion Entomologist for the Year 1915 (Ottawa: King's Printer 1916), 1. On Grisdale's reaction to Hewitt's recommendation, see NA, RG 17, BII 2, Department of Agriculture Central Registry and Indexes, vol. 3041, file 40-5-23, J.H. Grisdale to G.F. O'Hallaran, 16 Dec. 1912; NA, RG 32, C2, Civil Service Commission Historical Personnel Files of Government, vol. 125, file '421-Hewitt, C.G.,' Memorandum on the Desirability of Making the Dominion Entomologist Directly Responsible to the Deputy Minister of Agriculture, C.G. Hewitt to W. Saunders, 23 Feb. 1911
135. On the Migratory Birds Convention Act, see Janet Foster, Working for Wildlife (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1978), 120-77
136. Michel Girard, L'écologisme retrouvé. Essor et déclin de la Commission de conservation du Canada (Ottawa: Presses de l'Université d'Ottawa 1994), 175-227
137. Dorsey, The Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy, 165-237