Pediatric material properties: A review of human child and animal surrogates

Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering

Volumn 35, Issue 3-4, 2007, Pages 197-342

  Franklyn, Melanie ^a   Peiris, Sujanie ^a   Huber, Christina ^b   Yang, King H ^b,c  

^a MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c Bioengineering Center   (United States)

Author keywords

Child; Pediatric material properties; Tissue testing

Indexed keywords

COMPUTATIONAL GEOMETRY; CORRELATION METHODS; LIVING SYSTEMS STUDIES; MAMMALS;

CADAVERIC TESTS; PEDIATRIC MATERIAL PROPERTIES; TISSUE TESTING;

TISSUE;

ANALYTIC METHOD; ANTHROPOMETRY; BIOMECHANICS; BODY REGIONS; CADAVER; CERVICAL SPINE; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; CHILD GROWTH; CHIMPANZEE; CONGENITAL MALFORMATION; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; DEVICE; EXPERIMENTAL MODEL; HEAD; HISTOLOGY; HUMAN; JOINT FUNCTION; LIMB; NECK; NONHUMAN; PEDIATRICS; PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE; PIGLET; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RATING SCALE; REVIEW; TENSILE STRENGTH;

ANIMALIA; PAN;

EID: 37249063753     PISSN: 0278940X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1615/critrevbiomedeng.v35.i3-4.20     Document Type: Review

References (158)

1. Ce-nters for Disease Control and Prevention; Injury fact book. CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2006.
2. Fildes B, Charlton J, Fitzharris M, Langwieder K, Hummel T. Injuries to children in child restraints. Int J Crashworthiness. 2003;8(3):277-84.
3. Simpson DA, Blumbargs PC, McLean AJ, Scott G. Head injuries in infants and children: Measures to reduce mortality and morbidity in road accidents. World J Surg. 1992;16(3):403-9.
4. Lesire P, Grant R, Hummel T. The CREST project accident data base. The 17th Enhanced Safety of Vehicles Conference; 2001 June 4-7; Amsterdam.
5. Brown JK, Jing Y, Wang S, Ehrlich PF. Patterns of severe injury in pediatric car crash victims: Crash injury research engineering network database. J Pediat Surg. 2006; 41: 362-7.
6. Langwieder K, Hell W, Willson H. Performance of child restraint systems in real-life lateral collisions. Stapp Car Crash J. 1996: 391-404.
7. Arbogast KB, Moll EK, Morris SD, Anderko RL, Durbin DR, Winston FK. Factors influencing pediatric injury in side impact collisions. J Trauma. 2001;51(3):469-77.
8. Howard A, Rothman L, McKeag AM, Paxmino-Canizares J, Monk B, Comeau JL, et al. Children in side-impact motor vehicle crashes: seating positions and injury mechanisms. J Trauma. 2002;56(6):1276-85.
9. Durkin M, Laraque D, Lubman I, Barlow B. Epidemiology and prevention of traffic injuries to urban children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 1999;103(6):e74-81.
10. McGeehan J, Annest JL, Vajani M, Bull MJ, Agran PE, Smith GA. School bus-related injuries among children and teenagers in the United States. Pediatrics. 2006;118(5):1978-84.
11. Yoganandan N, Kumaresan S, Pintar FA, Gennarelli TA. Pediatric biomechanics. In: Nahum AM, Melvin JW, editors. Accidental injury, biomechanics and prevention, 2nd ed. New York: Springer-Verlag; 2002.
12. Franklyn M, Fildes B, Zhang L, Yang K, Sparke L. Analysis of finite element models for head injury investigation: Reconstruction of four real-world impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2005;49:1-32.
13. Duncan JM. Laboratory note: on the tensile strength of the fresh adult foetus. Br Med J. 1874;2:763-4.
14. Evans FG. Mechanical properties of bone. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publisher; 1973.
15. Roach, M. I was a human crash test dummy. Salon.com; c2000 [updated 1999 Nov 19; cited 2007 Oct 1]. Available from: http://www.salon.com/health/col/roac/ 1999/11/19/crash_test/.
16. Miller JS. Fetal pig dissection guide,including sheep heart, brain and eye. Goshen, IN: Author; 2005.
17. Snedeker JG, Niederer P, Schmidlin FR, Farshad M, Demetropoulos CK, Lee JB, Yang KH. Strain-rate dependant material properties of the porcine and human kidney capsule. J Biomech. 2005;38:1011-21.
18. Alexander R. Bipedal animals, and their differences from humans. J Anat. 2004;204(5):321-30.
19. D'Août K, Vereecke E, Schoonaert K, De Clercq D, Van Elsacker L, Aerts P. Locomotion in bonobos (Pan paniscus): differences and similarities between bipedal and quadrupedal terrestrial walking, and a comparison with other locomotor modes. J Anat. 2004;204(5):353-61.
20. Ohman JC, Krochta TJ, Lovejoy CO, Mensforth RP, Latimer B. Cortical bone distribution in the femoral neck of hominoids: implications for the locomotion of Australopithecus afarensis. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1997;104(1):117-31.
21. Ching RP, Nuckley DJ, Hertsted SM, Eck MP, Mann FA, Sun EA. Tensile mechanics of the developing cervical spine. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:329-36.
22. Nuckley DJ, Hersted SM, Ku GS, Eck MP, Ching RP. Compressive tolerance of the maturing cervical spine. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:431-40.
23. Nuckley DJ, Eck MP, Carter JW, Ching RP. Spinal maturation affects vertebral compressive mechanics and vBMD with sex dependence. Bone. 2004;35:720-8.
24. Nuckley DJ, Hertsted SM, Eck MP, Ching RP. Effect of displacement rate on the tensile mechanics of pediatic cervical functional spine units. J Biomech. 2005;38:2266-75.
25. Nuckley DJ and Ching RP. Developmental biomechanics of the cervical spine: tension and compression. J Biomech. 2006;39(16):3045-54.
26. Elias PZ, Nuckley DJ, Ching RP. Effect of loading rate on the compressive mechanics of immature baboon cervical spine. J Biomech Eng. 2006;128:18-23.
27. Dickman CA, Crawford NR, Tominaga T, Brantley AG, Coons S, Sonntag VK. Morphology and kinematics of the baboon upper cervical spine. Spine. 1994;19(22):2518-23.
28. Tominaga T, Dickman CA, Sonntag VK, Coons S. Comparative anatomy of the baboon and human cervical spines. Spine. 1995;20(2):131-7.
29. Hassel B, Farman AG. Skeletal maturation evaluation using cervical vertebrae. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 1995;107(1):58-66.
30. Vidal PP, Graf W, Berthoz A. The orientation of the cervical vertebral column in unrestrained awake animals. Exp Brain Res. 1986;61(3):549-59.
31. Pintar FA, Mayer RG, Yoganandan N, Sun E. Child neck strength characteristics using an animal model. Stapp Car Crash J. 2000;44:77-83.
32. Nakagawa Y, Hayashi K, Yamamoto N, Nagashima K. Age-related changes in biomechanical properties of the Achilles tendon in rabbits. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1996;73:7-10.
33. Franklyn R. private communication. Jan 2007.
34. Dobbing J. The later development of the brain and its vulnerability. In: Davis JA, Dobbing J, editors. Scientific foundations of paediatrics. London: Heinemann Medical; 1964.
35. Thibault KL, Margulies SS. Age dependant material properties of porcine cerebrum: implications for pediatric head injury criteria. J Biomech. 1998;31:1119-26.
36. Prange MT, Margulies SS. Regional, directional and age-dependant properties of brain undergoing large deformation. J Biomech Eng. 2002;124:244-52.
37. Prange MT, Kiralyfalvi G, Margulies SS. Pediatric rotational inertial brain injury: the relative influence of brain size and mechanical properties. Proceedings of 43rd Stapp Car Crash Conference; 1999.
38. Arbogast KB, Mong A, Marigowda S, Kent R, Stacey S, Mattice S, et al. Evaluating pediatric abdominal injuries. ESV Conference; 2005; Paper No 05-0046.
39. Prasad P, Daniel RP. A biomechanical analysis of head, neck, and torso injuries to child surrogates due to sudden torso acceleration. 28th Stapp Car Crash Conference; 1984; SAE Paper No. 841656.
40. Cotterill PC, Kostuik JP, D'Angelo G, Fernie GR, Maki BE. Production of a reproducible spinal burst fracture for use in biomechanical testing. J Orthopaed Res. 1987;5(3):462-5.
41. Cotterill PC, Kostuik JP, D'Angelo G, Fernie GR, Maki BE. An anatomical comparison of the human and bovine thoracolumbar spine. J Orthopaed Res. 1986;4(3):298-303.
42. Sairyo K, Goel VK, Grobler LJ, Ikata T, Katoh S. The pathomechanism of isthmic lumbar spondylolisthesis: a biomechanical study in immature calf spines. Spine. 1998;23(13):1442-6.
43. Wilke H-J, Krischak S, Claes L. Biomechanical comparison of calf and human spines. J Orthopaed Res. 1996;14(3):500-3.
44. Swartz DE, Wittenberg RH, Shea M, White AA, Hayes WC. Physical and mechanical properties of calf lumbosacral trabecular bone. J Biomech. 1991;24(11):1059-68.
45. Anderson DM, chief lexicographer. Dorlands illustrated medical dictionary. 28th ed. New York: Saunders; 1994.
46. Sinclair D. Human growth after birth. London: Oxford University Press; 1978.
47. Beusenberg MC, Happee R, Twisk D, Janssen EG. Status of injury biomechanics for the development of child dummies. 37th Stapp Car Crash Conference; 1993; SAE Paper No. 933104.
48. Sumner-Smith G. Bone in clinical orthopaedics. A study in comparative osteology. Toronto, Canada: W. B. Saunders Company; 1982.
49. Watson EH, Lowrey G. Growth and development of children. 5 ed. Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical Publishers; 1967.
50. Yoganandan N, Kumaresan S, Pintar FA, Gennarelli TA. Biomechanical tolerance criteria for pediatric populations. In: Joint session organized by the European Vehicle Passive Safety Network and IRCOBI, editors. Child occupant protection in motor vehicle crashes. London: Professional Engineering Publishing; 1997.
51. Kumaresean S, Yoganandan N, Pintar FA, Maiman DJ, Kuppa S. Biomechanical study of pediatric human cervical spine: a finite element approach. J Biomech Eng. 2000;122:60-71.
52. Ouyang J, Zhu Q, Zhao W, Xu Y, Chen W, Zhong S. Biomechanical assessment of the pediatric cervical spine under bending and tensile loading. Spine. 2005;30(24), E716-23.
53. Panjabi MM, White AA, 3rd, Keller D, Southwick WO, Friedlaender G. Stability of the cervical spine under tension. J Biomech. 1978;11:189-97.
54. McGowan DP, Voo LM, Liu YK. Distraction failure of the immature spine. ASME Bioengineering Conference; Breckinridge; 1993. BED 24:24-5.
55. Chan J, Putnam MA, Feustel PJ, Koltai PJ. The age dependent relationship between facial fractures and skull fractures. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2004;68(7):877-81.
56. Burdi AR, Huelke DF, Snyder RG, Lowrey GH. Infants and children in the adult world of automobile safety design: pediatric and anatomical considerations for design of child restraints. J Biomech. 1969;2:267-80.
57. Goldsmith W, Plunkett J. A biomechanical analysis of the causes of traumatic brain injury in infants and children. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2004;25:89-100.
58. Holck P. What can a baby's skull withstand? Testing the skull's resistance on an anatomical preparation. Forensic Sci Int. 2005;151(2-3):187-91.
59. McPherson GK, Kriewall TJ. The elastic modulus of fetal cranial bone: a first step towards an understanding of the biomechanics of fetal head molding. J Biomech. 1980;13:9-16.
60. Kriewall TJ, McPherson GK, Tsai AC. Bending properties and ash content of fetal cranial bone. J Biomech. 1981;14:73-9.
61. Mather BS. The effect of variation in specific gravity and ash content of the mechanical properties of human compact bone. J Biomech. 1968;1:207-10.
62. Currey JD. The mechanical consequences of variation in the mineral content of bone. J Biomech. 1969;2:1-11.
63. Kriewall TJ. Structural, mechanical, and material properties of fetal cranial bone. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1982;143;707-14.
64. Runge CF, Youssef A, Thibault KL, Kurtz SM, Magram G, Thibault LE. Material properties of human infant skull and suture: experiments and numerical analysis. 9th Injury Prevention through Biomechanics Symposium; Detroit; 1998.
65. Margulies S, Thibault KL. Infant skull and suture properties: measurements and implications for mechanisms of pediatric brain injury. J Biomech Eng. 2000;122:364-71.
66. Jans G, Van-Audekercke R, Vander Sloten F, Gobin R, Van der Perre G, Mommaerts MY Bending properties of cranial bone segments of newborn children. 11th conference of the ESB; 1998 July 8-11; Toulouse, France.
67. Prange MT, Luck JF, Dibb A, Van Ee CA, Nightingale RW, Myers BS. Mechanical properties and anthropometry of the human infant head. Stapp Car Crash J. 2004;48:279-99.
68. Coats B, Margulies S. Characterization of pediatric porcine skull properties during impact. IRBOBI Conference, Lisbon; 2003.
69. Thibault K. Pediatric head injuries: the influence of brain and skull mechanical properties [dissertation]. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania; 1997.
70. Klinich KD, Hulbert GM, Schneider LW. Estimating infant head injury criteria and impact response using crash reconstruction and finite element modelling. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002; 46:165-94.
71. Dekaban AS, Sadowsky D. Changes in brain weights during the span of human life: relation of brain weights to body heights and body weights. Ann Neurol. 1978;4:345-56.
72. Arbogast KB, Thibault KL, Pinheiro BS, Winey KI, Margulies SS. A high-frequency shear device for testing soft biological tissues. J Biomech. 1997;30(7):757-9.
73. Prange M, Meaney M, Margulies S. Directional properties of gray and white matter undergoing large deformation. ASME Winter Annual Meeting; 1998; Anaheim.
74. Raghupathi R, Margulies S. Traumatic axonal injury after closed head injury in the neonatal pig. J Neurotrauma. 2002;19:843-53.
75. Miller K, Chinzei K. Constitutive modelling of brain tissue: experiment and theory. J Biomech. 1997;30:1115-21.
76. Miller K, Chinzei K. Mechanical properties of brain tissue in tension. J Biomech. 2002;35:483-90.
77. Miller K, Chinzei K, Orssengo G, Bednarz P. Mechanical properties of brain tissue in-vivo: experiment and computer simulation. J Biomech. 2000;33:1369-76.
78. Miller K. Constitutive model of brain tissue suitable for finite element analysis of surgical procedures. J Biomech. 1999;32:531-7.
79. Duhaime AC, Margulies SS, Durham SR, O'Rourke MM, Golden JA, Marwaha S, Raghupathi R. Maturation-dependent response of the piglet brain to scaled cortical impact. J Neurosurg. 2000;93:455-62.
80. Duhaime AC, Hunter JV, Grate LL, Kim A, Golden J, Demidenko E, Harris C. Magnetic resonance imaging studies of age-dependent responses to scaled focal brain injury in the piglet. J Neurosurg. 2003;99:542-8.
81. Gefen A, Gefen N, Zhu Q, Raghupathi R, Margulies S. Age-dependent changes in material properties of the brain and braincase of the rat. J Neurotrauma. 2003;20:1163-77.
82. Gray H. Gray's anatomy. 37th ed. Edinburgh: Livingstone; 1989.
83. Broome DR, Hayman LA, Herrick RC, Braverman RM, Glass RBJ, Fahr LM. Postnatal maturation of the sacrum and coccyx: MR imaging, helical CT, and conventional radiography. Am J Roentgenol. 1998;170(4):1061-6.
84. Clemente CD. Anatomy: a regional atlas of the human body. 5 ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2007.
85. Sairyo K, Goel VK, Masuda A, Vishnubhotla S, Faizan A, Biyani A, et al. Three-dimensional finite element analysis of the pediatric lumbar spine. part I: pathomechanism of apophyseal bony ring fracture. Eur Spine J. 2006;15(6):923-9.
86. Weaver J, Chalmers JK. Cancellous bone: its strength and changes with aging and an evaluation of some methods for measuring its mineral content. part I: age changes in cancellous bone. J Bone Joint Surg. 1966;48A(2):299-308.
87. Mosekilde L, Viidik A, Mosekilde L. Correlation between the compressive strength of iliac and vertebral trabecular bone in normal individuals. Bone. 1985;6(5):291-5.
88. Mosekilde L, Mosekilde L. Normal vertebral body size and compressive strength: relations to age and to vertebral and iliac trabecular bone compressive strength. Bone. 1986;7(3):207-12.
89. Mosekilde L, Mosekilde L, Danielsen CC. Biomechanical competence of vertebral trabecular bone in relation to ash density and age in normal individuals. Bone. 1987;8(2):79-85.
90. Adams MA, Dolan P. A technique for quantifying the bending moment acting on the lumbar spine in vivo. J Biomech. 1991;24(2):117-26.
91. Adams MA, McNally DS, Chinn H, Dolan P. Posture and the compressive strength of the lumbar spine. Clin Biomech. 1994;9(1):5-14.
92. Miller JA, Schultz AB, Warwick DN, Spencer DL. Mechanical properties of lumbar spine motion segments under large loads. J Biomech. 1986;19(1):79-84.
93. Hammer J, Eber E. The peculiarities of infant respiratory physiology. Prog Respir Res Basel Karger. 2005;33:2-7.
94. Stürtz G. Biomechanical data of children. 24th Stapp Car Crash Conference; 1980; SAE Paper No. 801313.
95. Yamada H. Strength of biological materials. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1970.
96. Khamin NS. Strength properties of the human aorta and their variation with age. Mech Compos Mater. 1975;13(1):100-4.
97. Iannuzzi A, Rosaria Licenziati M, Acampora C, Salvatore V, De Marco D, Carolina Mayer M, De Michele M, Russo V. Preclinical changes in the mechanical properties of abdominal aorta in obese children. Metabolism. 2004;53(9):1243-6.
98. Roach MR, Burton AC. The effect of age on the elasticity of human iliac arteries. Can J Biochem Physiol. 1959;37:557-70.
99. Purinya BA, Kas'yanov VA. Changes in the mechanical properties of human coronary arteries with age. Mech Compos Mater. 1971;13(2):251-5.
100. Ozola BO, Purinya BA, Slutskii LI. Effect of age on the mechanical properties and biochemical composition of human cardiac tissue. Mech Compos Mater. 1978;14(3):413-6.
101. Theis M. Untersuchung der dynamischen und statischen Biegebelastung frischer menschlicher Rippen in Abhangigkeit zu Alter und Geschlecht [dissertation]. Germany: Ruprecht-Karl Universitat Heidelberg, 1975.
102. Fazekas IG, Kosa F, Jobba G, Meszaros E. Die Druckfestigkeit der menschlichen Leber mit besonderer Hinsicht auf die Verkehrsun-fälle. Zeits Rechtsmed. 1971;68:207-24.
103. Fazekas IG, Kosa F, Jobba G, Meszaros E. Beiträge zur Druckfestigkeit der menschlichen Milz bei stumpfen Krafteinwirkungenge. Arch Kriminol. 1972;149:158-74.
104. Stingl J, Baca V, Cech P, Kovanda J, Kovandova H, Mandys V, et al. Morphology and some biomechanical properties of human liver and spleen. Surg Radiol Anat. 2002;24(5):285-9.
105. Fazekas IG. Über die Reißfestigkeit der Haut verschiedener Körperregionen. Deut Zeit gerichtliche Med. 1968;64:62-92.
106. Kallieris D, Barz J, Schmidt G, Heess G, Mattern R. Comparison between child cadavers and child dummy by using child restraint systems in simulated collisions. 20th Stapp Car Crash Conference; 1976; SAE Paper No. 760815.
107. Ouyang J, Zhao W, Xu Y, Chen W, Zhong S. Thoracic impact testing of pediatric cadaveric subjects. J Trauma. 2005;61(6):1492-500.
108. Seki S, Iwamoto H. Disruptive forces for swine heart, liver and spleen: Their breaking stresses. J Trauma. 1998;45(6):1079-83.
109. Garcia Paez JM, Jorge-Herrero E, Carrera A, Millan I, Rocha A, Salvador J, et al. Porcine pericardial membrane subjected to tensile testing: preliminary study of the process of selecting tissue for use in the construction of cardiac bioprostheses. J Mater Sci: Mater Med. 2001a;12:425-30.
110. Garcia Paez JM, Jorge-Herrero E, Carrera A, Millan I, Rocha A, Cordon A, et al. A new method for selecting calf pericardium for use in cardiac bioprostheses on the basis of morphological and mechanical criteria. J Mater Sci: Mater Med. 2001b;12:665-71.
111. Garcia Paez JM, Jorge E, Rocha A, Castillo-Olivares JL, Millan I, Carrera A, et al. Mechanical effects of increase in the load applied in uniaxial and biaxial tensile testing: part II. porcine pericardium. J Mater Sci: Mater Med. 2002a;13:477-83.
112. Garcia Paez JM, Jorge E, Rocha A, Maestro M, Castillo-Olivares JL, Millan I, et al. Mechanical effects of increases in the load applied to uniaxial and biaxial tensile testing: part I. calf pericardium. J Mater Sci: Mater Med. 2002b;13:381-8.
113. Liu Z, Bilston LE. Large deformation shear properties of liver tissue. Biorheology. 2002;39:735-42.
114. Nasseri S, Bilston LE, Phan-Thien N. Viscoelastic properties of pig kidney in shear, experimental results and modelling. Rheol Acta. 2002;41:180-92.
115. Chui C, Kobayashi E, Chen X, Hisada T, Sakumu I. Combined compression and elongation experiments and non-linear modelling of liver tissue for surgical simulation. Med Biol Eng Comput. 2004;42(6):787-98.
116. Zhao J, Liao D, Gregersen H. Tension and stress in the rat and rabbit stomach are location- and direction-dependant. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2005;17(3):388-98.
117. Heijnsdijk EAM, van der Voort M, de Visser H, Dankelman J, Gouma DJ. Inter-and intraindividual variabilities of perforation forces of human and pig bowel tissue. Surg Endosc. 2003;17:1293-6.
118. Carter DR, Hayes WC. The compressive behaviour of bone as a two-phase porous structure. J Bone Joint Surg. 1977;59(7):954-62.
119. Keaveny TM, Hayes WC. A 20-year perspective on the mechanical properties of trabecular bone. J Biomech Eng. 1993;115(4B):534-42.
120. Hirsch C, Evans FG. Studies on some physical properties of infant compact bone. Acta Orthop Scand. 1965;35:300-13.
121. Currey JD, Butler G. The mechanical properties of bone tissue in children. J Bone Joint Surg. 1975;57A:810-4.
122. Martin RB, Atkinson PJ. Age and sex-related changes in the structure and strength of the human femoral shaft. J Biomech. 1977;10:223-31.
123. Lindahl O, Lindgren AGH. Cortical bone in man, II, Variation in tensile strength with age and sex. Acta Orthop Scand. 1967;38:141-7.
124. Vinz H. Die Festigkeitsmechanischen Grundlagen der typischen Frakturformen des Kindesalters. Zentralblatt Chirurgie. 1969;45:1509-14.
125. Wall JC, Chatterji SK, Jeffery JW. Age related changes in the density and tensile strength of human femoral cortical bone. Calcif Tissue Int. 1979;27:105-8.
126. Chung SMK, Batterman SC, Brighton CT. Shear strength of the human femoral capital epiphyseal plate. J Bone Joint Surg. 1976;58-A(1):94-103.
127. Currey JD. Changes in the impact energy absorption of bone with age. J Biomech. 1979;12:459-69.
128. Asang E., Posch P, Engelbrecht R. Experimentelle untersuchungen über die bruchfestigkeit des menschlichen schienbeines. Monatsschrift Unfallheilkunde. 1969;72:336-44.
129. Asang E, Wittmann G. Experimentelle und praktishche biomechanik des menschlichen beins. Med U Sport XIII; 1973. H8.
130. Jäger M, Dietschi C, Ungethüm M. Über das verhalten der unversehrten und durchbohrten tibia bei biegebeanspruchung. Arch Orthop Unfall-Chir. 1973;76:188-94.
131. Lange J. Verhalten der tibia von kindern und jugendlichen unter drehbelastung [Inaugural-Dissertation]. Munich: TU Müchen; 1976.
132. Mack RP. The biomechanics of children's ski bindings. J Sports Med. 1974;2(3):154-62.
133. Blanton PL, Biggs NL. Ultimate tensile strength of fetal and adult human tendons. J Biomech. 1970;3:181-9.
134. Noyes FR, Grood ES. The strength of the anterior cruciate ligament in human and rhesus monkeys: age-related and species-related changes. J Bone Joint Surg. 1976;58(A):1074-82.
135. Koo MW, Yang KH, Begeman P, Hammami M, Koo WW. Prediction of bone strength in growing animals using noninvasive bone mass measurements. Calcif Tissue Int. 2001;68:230-4.
136. Alippi RM, Olivera MI, Bozzini C, Huygens PA, Bozzini CE. Changes in material and architectural properties of rat femoral diaphysis during ontogeny in hypophysectomized rats. Comp Clin Path. 2005;14:76-80.
137. Quinn R. Comparing rat's to human's age: how old is my rat in people years? Nutrition. 2006;21:775-7.
138. Furikado K, Fujioka H, Kurosaka M, Yoshiya S, Makino T, Fujita K. Comparison of the mechanical and histological properties between the immature and mature tendon attachment. Int Orthop. 2002;26:318-21.
139. Elliott DH. Structure and function of mammalian tendon. Biol Rev. 1965;40:392-421.
140. Rollhäuser H. Konstitutions- und alterunterschiede in festigkeit koggagner fibrillen. Aus dem Anatomischen Institut der Universitat Marburg; 1950.
141. Stucke K. Über das elastische verhalten der Achillessehne im belastungsversuch. Langenbecks Arch U Dtsch Z Chir Bd. 1950;265:579-99.
142. Arey LB. Developmental Anatomy. A textbook and laboratory manual of embryology. Philadelphia: Saunders; 1965.
143. Allan FD. Essentials of human embryology. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1969.
144. Carlson BM. Human embryology and developmental biology. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby; 1999.
145. Lowry GH. Growth and development of children. 7th ed. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers; 1978.
146. Helmig R, Oxlund H, Petersen LK, Uldbjerg N. Different biomechanical properties of human fetal membranes obtained before and after delivery. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1993;48:183-9.
147. Oyen ML, Cook RF, Calvin SE. Mechanical failure of human fetal membrane tissues. J Mater Sci: Mater Med. 2004;15:651-8.
148. Pennati G. Biomechanical properties of the human umbilical cord. Biorheology 2001; 38(5-6):355-66.
149. Benson-Martin J, Zammaretti P, Bilic G, Schweizer T, Portmann-Lanz B, Burkhardt T, Zimmermann R and Ochsenbein-Kolble N. The Young's modulus of fetal preterm and term amniotic membranes. Reproductive Biology 2006;128:103-7.
150. Wall JC, Hutton WC, Cyron BM. The effects of age and strain rate on the mechanical properties of bone. IRCOBI Conference; 1974. SAE Paper No. 1974-13-0017.
151. Bass EC, Duncan NA, Hariharan JS, Dusick J, Bueff HU, Lotz JC. Frozen storage affects the compressive creep behavior of the porcine intervertebral disc. Spine. 1997;22(24):2867-76.
152. Callaghan, JP, McGill SM. Frozen storage increases the ultimate compressive load of porcine vertebrae. J Orthopaed Res. 1995;13(5):809-12.
153. Farrally MR, Moore WJ. Anatomical differences in the femur and tibia between Negroids and Caucasoids and their effects upon locomotion. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1975;43(1):63-9.
154. Sampei MA, Novo NF, Juliano Y, Colugnati FAB, Sigulem DM. Anthropometry and body composition in ethnic Japanese and Caucasian adolescent girls: Considerations on ethnicity and menarche. Int J Obes. 2003;27:1114-20.
155. Reeves SL, Varakamin C, Henry C. The relationship between arm-span measurement and height with special reference to gender and ethnicity. Eur J Clin Nutri. 1996;50(6):398-400.
156. Cheng JCY, Leung SSF, Lau J. Anthropometric measurements and body proportions among Chinese children. Clin Orthopaed Relat Res. 1996;323:22-30.
157. Wang X-F, Duan Y, Beck T, Seeman E. Varying contributions of growth and ageing to racial and sex differences in femoral neck structure and strength in old age. Bone. 2005;36:978-86.
158. Garn SM, Pao EM, Rihl ME. Compact bone in Chinese and Japanese. Science. 1964;143:1439-40.