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Volumn 22, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 43-55

Authoritative regulation and the stem cell debate

Author keywords

Human dignity; Human rights; National and international regulation; Procedural ethics; Stem cells; Theories of political obligation

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; AUTHORITY; HEALTH HAZARD; HUMAN; MEDICAL ETHICS; MEDICOLEGAL ASPECT; MORALITY; POLITICAL SYSTEM; STEM CELL;

EID: 37249015600     PISSN: 02699702     EISSN: 14678519     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00589.x     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (12)

References (101)
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    • Ibid: 69. ES cells are isolated from the inner cell mass of the 6-7 day old embryo.
    • Ibid: 69. ES cells are isolated from the inner cell mass of the 6-7 day old embryo.
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    • Ibid: 104-106. 'Therapeutic' cloning involves creating embryos by transforming somatic cell nuclear DNA into an enucleated oocyte. The ES cells are a nuclear genetic match to the donor-recipient, which avoids immunological rejection of transplanted cells.
    • Ibid: 104-106. 'Therapeutic' cloning involves creating embryos by transforming somatic cell nuclear DNA into an enucleated oocyte. The ES cells are a nuclear genetic match to the donor-recipient, which avoids immunological rejection of transplanted cells.
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    • Ibid: 66-68. EG cells are derived from foetuses between 5-6 weeks post fertilisation.
    • Ibid: 66-68. EG cells are derived from foetuses between 5-6 weeks post fertilisation.
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    • Solter et al. op. cit. note 3, s. 2.3. Although it is a point of contention, it appears that most adult SCs are multipotent and are limited in their potential to differentiate only into related cell lineages (i.e. haematopoietic SCs can become other blood cells). ES cells, however, appear to be pluripotent and have the potential to become any one of the hundreds of human-cell types.
    • Solter et al. op. cit. note 3, s. 2.3. Although it is a point of contention, it appears that most adult SCs are multipotent and are limited in their potential to differentiate only into related cell lineages (i.e. haematopoietic SCs can become other blood cells). ES cells, however, appear to be pluripotent and have the potential to become any one of the hundreds of human-cell types.
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    • Other ethical arguments have been used in the stem cell debates. Such arguments, however, have tended to remain within academic circles and inform policy-makers, rather than dominate any political ideology. A cursory examination of the policies found within the EU states will indicate the prevalence of overtly deontological reasoning prioritising the rights of agents or embryos, or consequentialist reasoning highlighting the benefits of research for agent wellbeing. More details on the national policies can be gathered from the reports and opinions of national advisory bodies, where available.
    • Other ethical arguments have been used in the stem cell debates. Such arguments, however, have tended to remain within academic circles and inform policy-makers, rather than dominate any political ideology. A cursory examination of the policies found within the EU states will indicate the prevalence of overtly deontological reasoning prioritising the rights of agents or embryos, or consequentialist reasoning highlighting the benefits of research for agent wellbeing. More details on the national policies can be gathered from the reports and opinions of national advisory bodies, where available.
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    • This is often paraphrased from the writings of I. Kant. 1996. The Metaphysic of Morals. M. Gregor, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Others have reached a similar conclusion because the debate has been subject to damaging hype, there is a significant risk of exploitation, and there is unlikely to be an egalitarian distribution of benefits. D. Callahan. Editorial. Commonweal 2005; January 14: 12-14;
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    • Furthermore, this step is necessary to affirm the rights of individuals and avoids the problems associated with utilitarian ethics and the harm principle. For discussion see: J. Rawls. 1973. A Theory of Justice. London: Oxford University Press: 180-181. The SC debate has been preoccupied by concerns of who are actually morally significant individuals, and that there may be no compromise or reasonable accommodation to be made, at least with those who hold that embryos are not potential rights-holders, but are actual rights-holders, and those who support embryo research. Resolving whether human rights are derived from dignity or vice versa, however, is not necessary for the dialectical and apodictic argument offered here, since the desire for authoritarian control derives from the agent's internal and rational viewpoint. Whether the agent subsequently chooses to defend the status of non-agents does not reflect upon the reasonableness of reaching a compromise position.
    • Furthermore, this step is necessary to affirm the rights of individuals and avoids the problems associated with utilitarian ethics and the harm principle. For discussion see: J. Rawls. 1973. A Theory of Justice. London: Oxford University Press: 180-181. The SC debate has been preoccupied by concerns of who are actually morally significant individuals, and that there may be no compromise or reasonable accommodation to be made, at least with those who hold that embryos are not potential rights-holders, but are actual rights-holders, and those who support embryo research. Resolving whether human rights are derived from dignity or vice versa, however, is not necessary for the dialectical and apodictic argument offered here, since the desire for authoritarian control derives from the agent's internal and rational viewpoint. Whether the agent subsequently chooses to defend the status of non-agents does not reflect upon the reasonableness of reaching a compromise position.
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    • The argument for deriving generic rights is presented in: A. Gewirth. 1978. Reason and Morality. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Regarding this claim, see Ibid: 52-63; and D. Beyleveld. 1991. The Dialectical Necessity of Morality: An Analysis and Defence of Alan Gewirth's Argument to the Principle of Generic Consistency. Chicago: Chicago University Press: 14.
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    • This argument only applies to the rights that agents can claim. Because of space, I cannot consider rights that may be claimed on behalf of others (e.g. non-agents), but see: Beyleveld & Brownsword, op. cit. note 17.
    • This argument only applies to the rights that agents can claim. Because of space, I cannot consider rights that may be claimed on behalf of others (e.g. non-agents), but see: Beyleveld & Brownsword, op. cit. note 17.
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    • Here I endorse 'filters' - that Dworkin referred to in establishing a 'discriminatory moral position', op. cit. note 16, pp. 248-252 - that exclude arguments that include prejudices, mere emotional reactions, rationalisations, and parroting. Justifiable arguments are held sincerely, and not arbitrarily, and are consistent with other beliefs of the proponent.
    • Here I endorse 'filters' - that Dworkin referred to in establishing a 'discriminatory moral position', op. cit. note 16, pp. 248-252 - that exclude arguments that include prejudices, mere emotional reactions, rationalisations, and parroting. Justifiable arguments are held sincerely, and not arbitrarily, and are consistent with other beliefs of the proponent.
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    • The question of the practical means of establishing 'overlapping consensus' is beyond the scope of this paper. Suffice it to say that, in practice, finding a reasonable reconciliation between different camps would be exceptionally difficult; but that is not to say that it would be impossible. There are numerous examples where fundamental disagreements have resulted, perhaps in the most rudimentary way, in consensus. The next stage of justifying procedural mechanisms is to show, at the micro- (national) and macro- (international) level, how an examination of the varied and complex comprehensive doctrines can provide an understanding of the nature of the disagreement, and thereby furnish ideas of how they can be compromised to the benefit of the community without overly sacrificing the interests of the individual or group.
    • The question of the practical means of establishing 'overlapping consensus' is beyond the scope of this paper. Suffice it to say that, in practice, finding a reasonable reconciliation between different camps would be exceptionally difficult; but that is not to say that it would be impossible. There are numerous examples where fundamental disagreements have resulted, perhaps in the most rudimentary way, in consensus. The next stage of justifying procedural mechanisms is to show, at the micro- (national) and macro- (international) level, how an examination of the varied and complex comprehensive doctrines can provide an understanding of the nature of the disagreement, and thereby furnish ideas of how they can be compromised to the benefit of the community without overly sacrificing the interests of the individual or group.
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    • The Argument for Authoritative Regulation proceeds from the agent's position as a rights-holder; this status also guarantees certain political and civil rights which cannot be overridden, regardless of the fairness of procedures. Cohen, op. cit. note 72, pp. 604-615.
    • The Argument for Authoritative Regulation proceeds from the agent's position as a rights-holder; this status also guarantees certain political and civil rights which cannot be overridden, regardless of the fairness of procedures. Cohen, op. cit. note 72, pp. 604-615.
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    • Ibid; House of Commons Science and Technology Committee. 2005. Human Reproductive Technologies and the Law Fourth Report. Session 2001-02. HC 791, para. 20.
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    • Dignity is the alleged basis of many human rights documents (supra. fn 45), but recourse to such a 'fundamental value' has created numerous problems. See Beyleveld & Brownsword, op. cit. note 17. Such problems arise because '. the notion of dignity plays a very dubious role in contemporary bioethical discourse. It is a slippery and inherently speciesist notion, it has a tendency to stifle argument and debate and encourages the drawing of moral boundaries in the wrong places'. H. Kuhse. 2000. Is There a Tension Between Autonomy and Dignity. In Bioethics and Biolaw: Volume Two: Four Ethical Principles. P. Kemp et al. eds. Copenhagen: Rhodos International Science and Arts Publishers & Centre for Ethics and Law: 61-74. p. 74.
    • Dignity is the alleged basis of many human rights documents (supra. fn 45), but recourse to such a 'fundamental value' has created numerous problems. See Beyleveld & Brownsword, op. cit. note 17. Such problems arise because '. the notion of dignity plays a very dubious role in contemporary bioethical discourse. It is a slippery and inherently speciesist notion, it has a tendency to stifle argument and debate and encourages the drawing of moral boundaries in the wrong places'. H. Kuhse. 2000. Is There a Tension Between Autonomy and Dignity. In Bioethics and Biolaw: Volume Two: Four Ethical Principles. P. Kemp et al. eds. Copenhagen: Rhodos International Science and Arts Publishers & Centre for Ethics and Law: 61-74. p. 74.
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    • There is something to be said regarding the moral content of these principles, but this is beyond the scope of this paper. See M. Benjamin. 1995. The Value of Consensus. In R. Bulger et al. op. cit. note 36, pp. 241-260; M. Golding. 1979. The Nature of Compromise. In Pennock & Chapman op. cit. note 82, pp. 3-25.
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    • In practice it is difficult to speak plausibly of the procedural criteria and the 'end state' of policy-making separately. Rejecting the 'democratic pluralist' view that procedural and substantive values are separate and not 'parts of a package', is however beyond the scope of this paper. I have limited my discussion to the process analysis of proceduralism, and this negates any present concern with further grounding principles. Such 'end-state' analysis, however, does demand careful consideration. Cohen, op. cit. note 72; and A. Kuflik. 1979. Morality and Compromise. In Pennock & Chapman, op. cit. note 83, pp. 38-65, discuss this alleged separation in detail, both coming down on the side that such a separation is misleading. Support for the 'democratic pluralist' view can be found in: J. Habermas. 1996. Reply to Symposium Participants: Habermas on Law and Democracy: Critical Exchanges. Cardozo Law Rev 17: 1477-1557; and Hampshire, op. cit. note 71.
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    • Further examples would include in the EU, Directive 2004/23/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 31 March 2004 on setting standards of quality and safety for the donation, procurement, testing, processing, preservation, storage and distribution of human tissues and cells; and the UN's success in finding common bioethics norms, articulated in the Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights 1997, and the Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights 2005.
    • Further examples would include in the EU, Directive 2004/23/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 31 March 2004 on setting standards of quality and safety for the donation, procurement, testing, processing, preservation, storage and distribution of human tissues and cells; and the UN's success in finding common bioethics norms, articulated in the Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights 1997, and the Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights 2005.
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