Shifting adaptive landscapes: Progress and challenges in reconstructing early hominid environments

Yearbook of Physical Anthropology

Volumn 50, Issue , 2007, Pages 20-58

  Kingston, John D ^a  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Africa; Human evolution; Paleoecology; Paleoenvironment

Indexed keywords

DRUG ANALYSIS; ISOTOPE;

AFRICA; ANIMAL; CLIMATE; ECOLOGY; ENVIRONMENT; EVOLUTION; HOMINID; HUMAN; METHODOLOGY; PALEONTOLOGY; PLANT; REVIEW; THEORETICAL MODEL;

AFRICA; ANALYSIS; ANIMALS; CLIMATE; ECOLOGY; ENVIRONMENT; EVOLUTION; HOMINIDAE; HUMANS; ISOTOPES; METHODS; MODELS, THEORETICAL; PALEONTOLOGY; PLANTS; TRENDS;

HOMINIDAE;

EID: 36849002927     PISSN: 0096848X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.20733     Document Type: Review

References (371)

1. Abell PI, Amegashitsi L, Ochumba PBO. 1995. The shells of Etheria elliptica as recorders of seasonality at Lake Victoria. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 119:215-219.
2. Alemseged Z. 2003. An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution. J Hum Evol 44:451-478.
3. Alexandre A, Meunier JD, Lezine AM, Vincens A, Schwartz D. 1997. Phytoliths: indicators of grassland dynamics during the late Holocene in intertropical Africa. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 139:213-229.
4. Alroy J. 1996. Constant extinction, constrained diversification, and uncoordinated stasis in North American mammals. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 127:285-311.
5. Ambrose S. 1995. Paleoecology and paleobiogeography of late Miocene hominoid/hominid cladogenesis: was the trichotomy a reality. Presented at the Fourth Annual Meeting Paleoanthropological Society, Oakland, CA.
6. Ambrose SA, DeNiro MJ. 1986. The isotopic ecology of East African mammals. Oecologia 69:395-406.
7. Andrews P. 1996. Palaeoecology and hominoid palaeoenvironments. Biol Rev 71:257-300.
8. Andrews P, Lord JM, Nesbit-Evans EM. 1979. Patterns of ecological diversity in fossil and modern mammalian faunas. Biol J Linn Soc 11:177-205.
9. Andrews P, Nesbit-Evans E. 1979. The environment of Ramapithecus in Africa. Paleobiology 5:22-30.
10. Andrews P, Van Couvering JAH. 1975. Palaeoenvironments in the East African Miocene. In: Szalay FS, editor. Approaches to primate paleobiology, contributions to primatology, Vol. 5. Basel: Karger. p 62-103.
11. Andrews P, Walker A. 1976. The primate and other fauna from Fort Ternan, Kenya. In: Isaac GL, McCown ER, editors. Human origins: Louis Leakey and the East African evidence. Menlo Park: W.A. Benjamin. p 279-304.
12. Andrews PJ, Humphrey L. 1999. African Miocene environments and the transition to early hominines. In: Bromage T, Schrenk F, editors. African biogeography, climate change, and human evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p 282-300.
13. Arctander P, Johansen C, Coutellec-Vreto M. 1999. Phylogeography of three closely related African bovids (tribe Alcelaphini). Mol Biol Evol 16:1724-1739.
14. Asfaw B, White T, Lovejoy O, Latimer B, Simpson S, Suwa G. 1999. Australopithecus garhi: a new species of early hominid from Ethiopia. Science 284:629-635.
15. Ashley GM, Driese SG. 2003. Paleopedology and paleohydrology of a volcaniclastic paleosol interval; implications for early Pleistocene stratigraphy and paleoclimate record. Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. J Sediment Res 70:1065-1080.
16. Axelrod DI, Raven PH. 1978. Late Cretaceous and Tertiary vegetation history of Africa. In: Werger MJA, editor. Biogeography and ecology of southern Africa. The Hague: W. Junk. p 77-130.
17. Baas M, Pancost R, van Geel B, Sinninghe D, Jaap S. 2000. A comparative study of lipids in Sphagnum species. Org Geochem 31:535-541.
18. Barboni D, Bonnefille R, Alexandre A, Meunier JD. 1999. Phytoliths as paleoenvironmental indicators. West Side Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 152:87-100.
19. Barker PA, Talbot MR, Street-Perrott RA, Marret R, Scourse J, Odada EO. 2004. Late Quaternary climatic variability in intertropical Africa. In: Battarbe RW, Gasse F, Stickley CE, editors. Past climate variability through Europe and Africa. Dordrecht: Springer. p 117-138.
20. Barnosky AD. 2001. Distinguishing the effects of the Red Queen and Court Jester on Miocene mammal evolution in the northern Rocky Mountains. J Vertebr Paleolontol 21:172-185.
21. Barnosky AD. 2005. Effects of Quaternary climatic change on speciation in mammals. J Mammal Evol 12:247-264.
22. Barnosky AD, Bell CJ. 2003. Evolution, climatic change and species boundaries: perspectives from tracing Lemmiscus sur tatus populations through time and space. Proc R Soc Lond B 270:2585-2590.
23. Bartholomew GA, Birdsell JB. 1953. Ecology and the protohominids. Am Anthropol 55:481-498.
24. Behrensmeyer AK. 2006. Climate change and human evolution. Science 311:476-478.
25. Behrensmeyer AK, Hook RW. 1992. Paleoenvironmental contexts and taphonomic modes. In: Beherensmeyer AK, Damuth JD, DiMichele WA, Potts R, Sues H-D, Wing SL, editors. Terrestrial ecosystems through time: evolutionary paleoecology of terrestrial plants and animals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p 15-136.
26. Behrensmeyer AK, Todd NE, Potts R, McBrinn GE. 1997. Late Pliocene faunal turnover in the Turkana Basin, Kenya and Ethiopia. Science 278:1589-1594.
27. Bell G. 1982. The masterpiece of nature: the evolution and genetics of sexuality. Berkeley: University of California Press.
28. Bennett KD. 1990. Milankovitch cycles and their effects on species in ecological and evolutionary time. Paleobiology 16:11-21.
29. Bennett KD. 1997. Evolution and ecology: the pace of life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
30. Berger A. 1977. Support for the astronomical theory of climatic change. Nature 269:44-45.
31. Berger A, Loutre MF, Melice JL. 2006. Equatorial insolation: from precession harmonics to eccentricity frequencies. Clim Past 2:1131-136.
32. Berger AL. 1978. Long-term variations of daily insolation and Quaternary climatic changes. J Atmos Sci 35:2362-2367.
33. Berger WH, Jansen E. 1994. Mid-Pleistocene climate shift: the Nansen connection. In: Johannessen OM, Muench RD, Overland JE, editors. The polar oceans and their role in shaping the global environment: geophysical monographs. p 10385-10399.
34. Bernor RL, Kaiser TM, Nelson SV. 2004. The oldest Ethiopian hipparion (equinae, perissodactyla) from Chorora: systematics, paleodiet and paleoclimate. Cour Forsch-Inst Senckenberg 246:213-226.
35. Bishop LC. 1999. Suid paleoecology and habitat preferences at African Pliocene and Pleistocene hominid localities. In: Bromage T, Schrenk F, editors. African biogeography and human evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p 216-225.
36. Bishop LC, Hill A, Kingston JD. 1999. Paleoecology of Suidae from the Tugen Hills, Baringo, Kenya. In: Andrews P, Banham P, editors. Late Cenozoic environments and hominid evolution: a tribute to Bill Bishop. London: Geological Society of London. p 99-112.
37. Bishop WW. 1962. Pleistocene chronology in East Africa. Adv Sci 18:491-494.
38. Blumenschine RJ. 1987. Characteristics of an early hominid scavenging niche. Curr Anthropol 28:383-407.
39. Bobe R. 2006. The evolution of arid ecosystems in eastern Africa. J Arid Environ 66:564-584.
40. Bobe R, Behrensmeyer AK. 2004. The expansion of grassland ecosystems in Africa in relation to mammalian evolution and the origin of the genus Homo. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 207:399-420.
41. Bobe R, Behrensmeyer AK, Chapman RE. 2002. Faunal change, environmental variability and late Pliocene hominin evolution. J Hum Evol 42:475-497.
42. Bobe R, Eck GG. 2001. Responses of African bovids to Pliocene climatic change. Paleobiol Memoirs 27:1-47.
43. 18O) of mammalian enamel from African Pleistocene hominid sites. Palaios 11:306-318.
44. Bonnefille R. 1984. Cenozoic vegetation and environments of early hominids in East Africa. In: Whyte RO, editor. The evolution of the East Asian environment. II. Palaeobotany, palaeozoology, and paleoanthropology. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong, Centre of Asian Studies. p 579-612.
45. Bonnefille R. 1994. Palynology and paleoenvironment of East African hominid sites. In: Corruccini RS, Ciochon RL, editors. Integrative paths to the past. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p 415-427.
46. Bonnefille R. 1995. A reassessment of the Plio-Pleistocene pollen record of East Africa. In: Vrba ES, Denton GH, Partridge TC, Burckle LH, editors. Paleoclimate and evolution, with emphasis on human origins. New Haven: Yale University Press. p 299-310.
47. Bonnefille R, Dechamps R. 1983. Data on fossil flora. In: Heinzelin JD, editor. The Omo group: archives of the international Omo research expedition. Tervuren, Belgium: Musee Royal de l'Afrique Central.
48. Bonnefille R, Letouzey R. 1976. Fruits fossiles d'Antrocaryon dan la vallee de l'Omo (Ethiopie). Adansonia 16:65-82.
49. Bonnefille R, Mohammed U. 1994. Pollen-inferred climatic fluctuations in Ethiopia during the last 3000 years. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 109:331-343.
50. Bonnefille R, Potts R, Chalie F, Jolly D, Peyron O. 2004. High-resolution vegetation and climate change associated with Pliocene Australopithecus afarensis. PNAS 101:12125-12129.
51. Boureau E, Cheboldaeff-Salard M, Koeninguer J-C, Louvet P. 1983. Evolution des flores et de la vegetation Tertiares en Afrique, au nord de l'equateur. Bothalia 14:355-367.
52. Bozzano G, Kuhlmann H, Alonso B. 2002. Storminess control over African dust input to the Moroccan Atlantic margin (NW Africa) at the time of maxima boreal summer insolation: a record of the last 220 kyr. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 183:155-168.
53. Brain CK. 1981. The evolution of man in Africa: was it a consequence of Cainozoic cooling? Trans Geol Soc S Afr Annex 84:1-19. Alex L. du Toit memorial lecture 17.
54. Brockman DK, van Schaik CP, editors. 2005. Seasonality in primates. New York: Cambridge University Press.
55. Bromage TG, Schrenk F. 1999. African biogeography, climate change, and human evolution. New York: Oxford University Press.
56. Brown FH. 1969. Observations on the stratigraphy and radiometric age of the Omo Beds, southern Ethiopia. Quaternaria 11:7-14.
57. Brown FH. 1995. The Turkana Basin and paleoclimatic reconstruction in East Africa. In: Vrba ES, Denton GH, Partridge TC, Burckle LH, editors. Paleoclimate and evolution, with emphasis on human origins. New Haven: Yale University Press. p 319-330.
58. Brown FH, Feibel CS. 1986. Revision of the lithostratigraphic nomenclature in the Koobi Fora region, Kenya. J Geol Soc Lond 143:297-310.
59. Bryant JD, Koch PL, Froelich PN, Showers WJ. 1996. Oxygen isotope partitioning between phosphate and carbonate in mammalian apatite. Geochim Cosmochim 60:5145-5148.
60. Burel F, Baudry J. 2003. Landscape ecology: concepts, methods, and applications. Enfield, New Hampshire: Science Publishers.
61. Butzer KW. 1977. Environment, culture, and human evolution. Am Sci 65:572-584.
62. Campisano CJ, Feibel CS. Connecting local environmental sequences to global climate patterns: evidence from the hominin-bearing Hadar Formation, Ethiopia. J Hum Evol (in press).
63. Cane MA, Molnar P. 2001. Closing of the Indonesian seaway as a precursor to East African aridification around 3-4 million years ago. Nature 411:157-162.
64. Castillo JBD, Brooks CJW, Cambie RC, Eglinton G. 1967. The taxonomic distribution of some hydrocarbons in gymnosperms. Phytochemistry 6:391-398.
65. Cerling TE. 1992. Development of grasslands and savannas in East Africa during the Neogene. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol (Global Planet Change Sect) 97:241-247.
66. Cerling TE, Bowman JR, O'Neil JR. 1988. An isotopic study of a fluvial-lacustrine sequence: the PlioPleistocene Koobi Fora formation, East Africa. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 63:335-356.
67. Cerling TE, Harris JM. 1999. Carbon isotope fractionation between diet and bioapatite in ungulate mammals and implications for ecological and paleoecological studies. Oecologia 120:347-363.
68. Cerling TE, Harris JM, Ambrose SH, Leakey MG, Solounias N. 1997b. Dietary and environmental reconstruction with stable isotope analyses of herbivore tooth enamel from the Miocene locality of Fort Ternan, Kenya. J Hum Evol 33:635-650.
69. Cerling TE, Harris JM, Leakey MG. 1999. Browsing and grazing in elephants: the isotope record of modern and fossil proboscideans. Oecologia 120:360-374.
70. Cerling TE, Harris JM, Leakey MG. 2003b. Isotope paleoecology of the Nawata and Nachukui Formations at Lothagam, Turkana Basin, Kenya. In: Leakey MG, Harris JM, editors. Lothagam: the dawn of humanity in eastern Africa. New York: Columbia University Press. p 605-624.
71. Cerling TE, Harris JM, Leakey MG, Mudida N. 2003a. Stable isotope ecology of northern Kenya, with emphasis on the Turkana Basin. In: Leakey MG, Harris JM, editors. Lothagam: the dawn of humanity in eastern Africa. New York: Columbia University Press. p 583-603.
72. 4 grasslands. In: Griffiths H, editor. Stable isotopes. Oxford: BIOS Scientific. p 363-379.
73. Cerling TE, Harris JM, MacFadden BJ, Leakey MG, Quade J, Eisenmann V, Ehleringer JR. 1997a. Global vegetation change through the Miocene/Pliocene boundary. Nature 389:153-158.
74. Cerling TE, Hay RL, O'Neil JR. 1977. Isotopic evidence for dramatic climatic changes in East Africa during the Pleistocene. Nature 267:137-138.
75. Cerling TE, Quade J, Ambrose SH, Sikes NE. 1991. Fossil soils, grasses, and carbon isotopes from Fort Ternan: grassland or woodland. J Hum Evol 21:295-306.
76. 4 ecosystems as an indicator of global ecological change in the Late Miocene. Nature 361:344-345.
77. Chapman GP. 1996. The biology of grasses. Wallingford, Australia: CAB International.
78. Churcher CS. 1970. Two new Upper Miocene giraffids from Fort Ternan, Kenya, East Africa: Palaeotragus primarius n. sp. and Samotherium africanum n. sp. In: Leakey LSB, Savage RJG, editors. Fossil vertebrates of Africa, Vol. 2. London: Academic Press. p 1-106.
79. Clement AC, Hall A, Broccoli AJ. 2004. The importance of precessional signals in the tropical climate. Clim Dyn 22:327-341.
80. Cohen AS, Scholtz CA, Johnson TC. 2000. The international decade of East African lakes (IDEAL) drilling initiative for the African Great Lakes. J Paleolimnol 24:231-235.
81. Collister JW, Rieley G, Stern B, Eglinton G, Fry B, 1994. Compound-specific δ13C analyses of leaf lipids from plants with differing carbon dioxide metabolisms. Organic Geochemistry 21:619-627.
82. Cooke HBS, Wilkinson QF. 1978. Suidae and Tayassuidae. In: Maglio VJ, Cooke HBS, editors. Evolution of African mammals. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p 435-482.
83. Coppens Y. 1994. East side story: the origin of humankind. Scientific American May: 88-95.
84. Cote SM. 2004. Origins of the African hominoids: an assessment of the palaeobiogeographical evidence. C R Palevol 3:323-340.
85. Croll J. 1864. On the physical causes of the changes of climate during geological epochs. Philos Mag 28:121-137
86. Crowley TJ, North GR. 1991. Paleoclimatology. New York: Oxford University Press.
87. D'Argenio B, Fischer AG, Richter GM, Longo G, Pelosi N, Molisso F, Morais MLD. 1998. Orbital cyclicity in the Eocene of Angola: visual and image-time-series analysis compared. Earth Planet Sci Lett 160:147-161.
88. Damuth J. 1982. Analysis of the preservation of community structure in assemblages of fossil mammals. Paleobiology 8:434-446.
89. Dart RA. 1925. Australopithecus africanus: the man-ape of South Africa. Nature 115:195-199.
90. Darwin C. 1871. The descent of man. London: D. Appleton.
91. Darwin C. 1872. The expression of emotions in animals and man. New York: Oxford University Press.
92. DeGusta D, Vrba E. 2003. A method for inferring paleohabitats from the functional morphology of bovid astragali. J Archaeol Sci 30:1009-1022.
93. de Heinzelin J. 1983. The Omo Group: archives of the International Omo Research Expedition. Musee Royal de L'Afrique Centrale Annales, Belgique, Series 8, Sciences Geologiques 85:1-365.
94. Deino AL, Kingston JD, Glen JM, Edgar RK, Hill A. 2006. Precessional forcing of lacustrine sedimentation in the late Cenozoic Chemeron Basin, Central Kenya Rift. Earth Planet Sci Lett 247:41-60.
95. deMenocal PB. 1995. Pliop-Pleistocene African climate and the paleoenvironment of human evolution. Science 270:53-59.
96. deMenocal PB. 2004. African climate change and faunal evolution during the Pliocene-Pleistocene. Earth Planet Sci Lett 220:3-24.
97. deMenocal PB, Bloemendal J. 1995. Plio-Pleistocene climatic variability in subtropical Africa and the paleoenvrionment of hominid evolution. In: Vrba ES, Denton GH, Partridge TC, Burckle LH, editors. Paleoclimate and evolution, with emphasis on human origins. New Haven: Yale University Press. p 262-288.
98. deMenocal P, Ortiz J, Guilderson T, Adkins J, Sarnthein M, Baker L, Yarusinsky M. 2000. Abrupt onset and termination of the African Humid Period: rapid climate responses to gradual insolation forcing. Quatern Sci Rev 19:347-361.
99. deMenocal PB, Rind D. 1993. Sensitivity of Asian and African climate to variations in seasonal insolation, glacial ice cover, sea surface temperature, and Asian orography. J Geophys Res 98:7265-7287.
100. DeNiro MJ, Epstein S. 1978. Influence of diet on the distribution of carbon isotopes in animals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 42:341-351.
101. Denison SM, Maslin MA, Boot C, Pancost RD, Ettwein VJ. 2005. Precession-forced changes in South West African vegetation during Marine Isotope Stages 101-100 (2.56-2.51 Ma). Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 22:375-386.
102. Dechamps R, Senut B, Pickford M. 1992. Fruits fossils Pliocenes et Pleistocenes du Rift Occidental ougandais. Signification paleoenvironmentale. C R Acad des Sci Ser II 314:325-331.
103. de Vries H. 1906. Species and varieties: their origin by mutation. Chicago: Open Court.
104. Dirks W, Reid DJ, Jolly CJ, Phillips-Conroy JE, Brett FL. 2002. Out of the mouths of baboons: stress, life history, and dental development in the Awash National Park Hybrid Zone, Ethiopia. Am J Phys Anthropol 118:239-252.
105. Dominguez-Rodrigo M, Antonio J, Lopez-Saez, Vincens A, Alcala L, Luque L, Serrallonga J. 2001. Fossil pollen from the Upper Humbu Formation of Peninj (Tanzania): hominid adaptation to a dry open Plio-Pleistocene savanna environment. J Hum Evol 40:151-157.
106. Dugas DP, Retallack GJ. 1988. Fossil grasses of the Kenyapithecus locality near Fort Ternan, Kenya. Am J Phys Anthropol 75:205.
107. Dugas DP, Retallack RJ. 1993. Middle Miocene fossil grasses from Fort Ternan, Kenya. J Paleontol 67:113-128.
108. Dynesius M, Jansson R. 2000. Evolutionary consequences of changes in species' geographical distributions driven by Milankovitch climate oscillations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:9115-9120.
109. 2, and climate. Oecologia 112:285-299.
110. Eklundh L. 1996. AVHRR NDVI for monitoring and mapping of vegetation and drought in East African environments. Lund: Lund University Press.
111. Eldredge N, Grene M. 1992. Interactions: the biological context of social systems. New York: Columbia University Press.
112. Eldredge N, Salthe SN. 1984. Hierarchy and evolution. Oxford Surv Evol Biol 1:184-208.
113. Elenga H, Schwartz D, Vincens A. 1994. Pollen evidence of late Quaternary vegetation and inferred climate changes in Congo. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 109:345-356.
114. Emiliani C. 1966. Paleotemperature analysis of Caribbean cores P6304-8 and P6304-9 and a generalized temperature curve for the past 425,000 years. J Geol 74:109-126.
115. Ericson JE, Sulivan CH, Boaz NT. 1981. Diets of Pliocene mammals from Omo, Ethiopia, deduced from carbon isotope ratios in tooth apatite. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 36:69-73.
116. Feakins SJ, deMenocal PB, Eglinton TI. 2005. Biomarker records of late Neogene changes in northeast African vegetation. Geology 33:977-980.
117. Feibel CS. 2003. Stratigraphy and depositional setting of the Pliocene Kanapoi Formation, Lower Kerio Valley, Kenya. In: Harris JM, Leakey MG, editors. Geology and vertebrate paleontology of the Early Pliocene site of Kanapoi, northern Kenya. Contributions in science. Los Angeles: Natural History Museum. p 9-20.
118. Feibel CS, Harris JM, Brown FH. 1991. Palaeoenvironmental context for the late Neogene of the Turkana Basin. In: Harris JM, editor. Koobi Fora Research Project, Vol. 3: the fossil ungulates: geology, fossil artiodactyls, and palaeoenvironments. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p 321-370.
119. Fernandez MH, Vrba ES. 2006. Plio-Pleistocene climatic change in the Turkana Basin (East Africa): evidence from large mammal faunas. J Hum Evol 50:595-626.
120. Ficken KJ, Li B, Swain DL, Eglinton G. 2000. An n-alkane proxy for the sedimentary input of submerged/floating freshwater aquatic macrophytes. Org Geochem 31:745-749.
121. Ficken KJ, Woodler MJ, Swain DL, Street-Perrott FA, Eglinton G. 2002. Reconstruction of a subalpine grass-dominated ecosystem. Lake Rutundu, Mount Kenya: a novel multi-proxy approach. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 177:137-149.
122. Fleming TH. 1973. Numbers of mammal species in North and Central American forest communites. Ecology 54:555-563.
123. Foley R. 1987. Another unique species: patterns in human evolutionary ecology. Essex: Longman Scientific and Technical.
124. Foley R. 1994. Speciation, extinction and climate change in hominid evolution. J Hum Evol 26:275-289.
125. Foley R. 1999. Pattern and process in hominid evolution. In: Bintliff J, editor. Structure and contingency: evolutionary processes in life and human society. London: Leicester University Press. p 31-42.
126. Foley R. 2001. In the shadow of the modern synthesis? Alternative perspectives on the last fifty years of paleoanthropology. Evol Anthropol 10:5-14.
127. Foley R. 2002. Adaptive radiations and dispersals in hominin evolutionary ecology. Evol Anthropol Suppl 1:132-137.
128. Freeman KH, Colarusso LA. 2001. Molecular and isotopic records of C4 grassland expansion in the Late Miocene. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 65:1439-1454.
129. 4) of mammalian tooth enamel as a record of seasonal variations in continental climate variables. Geochim Cosmochim 62:1839-1859.
130. Gadbury C, Todd L, Jahre AH, Amundson R. 2000. Sparial and temporal variations in the isotopic composition of bison tooth enamel from the Early Holocene Hudson-Meng Bone Bed, Nebraska. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 157:79-93.
131. Gasse F, Ledee V, Massault M, Fontes J-C. 1989. Water-level fluctuations of Lake Tanganyika in phase with oceanic changes during the last glaciation and deglaciation. Nature 342:57-59.
132. Gelpi E, Schneider J, Mann J, Oro J. 1970. Hydrocarbons of geochemical significance in microscopic algae. Phytochemistry 9:603-612.
133. Gentry AW. 1970. The Bovidae (Mammalia) of the Fort Ternan Fossil Fauna. In: Leakey LSB, Savage RJG, editors. Fossil vertebrates of Africa, Vol. 2. London: Academic Press. p 243-323.
134. Gorgas TJ, Wilkens RH. 2002. Sedimentation rates off SW Africa since the Late Miocene deciphered from spectral analyses of borehole and GRA bulk density profiles: ODP sites 1081-1084. Mar Geol 180:29-47.
135. Gould SJ. 1985. The paradox of the first tier: an agenda for paleobiology. Paleobiology 11:2-12.
136. Graham RW. 1986. Response of mammalian communities to environmental changes during the late Quaternary. In: Diamond J, Case TJ, editors. Community ecology. New York: Harper and Row. p 300-313.
137. Grant PR, Grant BR. 2002. Unpredictable evolution in a 30-year study of Darwin's finches. Science 296:707-711.
138. Greenwood DR. 1991. The taphonomy of plant macrofossils. In: Donovan SK, editor. The processes of fossilisation. London: Belhaven Press. p 141-169.
139. Grine FE. 1986. Ecological causality and the pattern of Plio-Pleistocene hominid evolution in Africa. S Afr J Sci 82:87-89.
140. Grunblatt J, Ottichilo WK, Sinange RK. 1989. A hierarchial approach to vegetation classification in Kenya. Afr J Ecol 27:45-51.
141. Haesaerts P, Stoops G, Vliet-Lanoe BV. 1983. Data on Sediments and fossil soils. In: de Heinzelin J, editor. The Omo Group: Musee Royal de l'Afrique Centrale, Tervuren, Belgique. Annales, Serie 8, Sciences Geologiques, No. 85. p 149-186.
142. 18O in mollusk shells from Pliocene Lake Hadar and modern Ethiopian lakes: implications for history of the Ethiopian monsoon. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 186:81-99.
143. Haile-Selassie Y. 2001. Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature 412:178-181.
144. Han BJ, McCarthy ED, Hoeven Wv, Calvin M, Bradley WH. 1968. Organic geochemical studies. II. A preliminary report on the distribution of aliphatic hydrocarbons in algae, in bacteria, and in a recent lake sediment. Proc Natl Acad Sci 59:29-33.
145. Harris JM. 1987. Fossil Suidae from Laetoli. In: Leakey MD, Harris JM, editors. Laetoli: a Pliocene site in northern Tanzania. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p 349-358.
146. Harris JM, Brown FH, Leakey MG. 1988. Stratigraphy and paleontology of Pliocene and Pleistocene localities west of Lake Turkana, Kenya. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. Contrib Sci 399:1-128.
147. Harris JM, Leakey MG, Cerling TE. 2003. Early Pliocene tetrapod remains from Kanapoi, Lake Turkana Basin, Kenya. In: Harris JM, Leakey MG, editors. Geology and vertebrate paleontology of the Early Pliocene site of Kanapoi, northern Kenya. Contributions in science. Los Angeles: Natural History Museum. p 39-115.
148. 4 types in grasses. Aust J Plant Physiol 9:139-154.
149. Haug GH, Sigman DM, Tiedemann R, Pedersen TF, Sarnthein M. 1999. Onset of permanent stratification in the subarctic Pacific Ocean. Nature 401:779-782.
150. Haug GH, Tiedemann R. 1998. Effect of the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on Atlantic Ocean thermohaline circulation. Nature 393:673-676.
151. Hay R. 1981. Paleoenvironment of the Laetolil Beds, northern Tanzania. In: Rapp G, Vondra CF, editors. Hominid sites: their geologic settings. AAA Selected Symposium 63. Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science. p 7-24.
152. Hay RL. 1976. Geology of the Olduvai Gorge. Berkeley: University of California Press.
153. Hay RL. 1987. Geology of the Laetoli area. In: Leakey MD, Harris JM, editors. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p 23-47.
154. Hays JD, Imbrie J, Shackleton NJ. 1976. Variations in the earth's orbit: pacemaker of the ice ages. Science 194:1121-1132.
155. Hill A. 1981. Why study palaeoecology? Nature 293:340.
156. Hill A. 1987. Causes of perceived faunal change in the later Neogene of East Africa. J Hum Evol 16:583-596.
157. Hill A. 1995. Faunal and environmental change in the Neogene of East Africa: evidence from the Tugen Hills Sequence, Baringo District, Kenya. In: Vrba ES, Denton GH, Partridge TC, Burckle LH, editors. Paleoclimate and evolution, with emphasis on human origins. New Haven: Yale University Press. p 178-193.
158. Hill A, Curtis G, Drake R. 1986. Sedimentary stratigraphy of the Tugen Hills. In: Frostick LE, Renaut RW, Reid I, Tiercelin JJ, editors. Sedimentation in the African rifts. London: Geological Society Special Publication. p 285-295.
159. Hill A, Leakey M, Kingston JD, Ward S. 2002. New cercopithecoids and a hominoid from 12.5 Ma in the Tugen Hills succession, Kenya. J Hum Evol 42:75-93.
160. Hill A, Ward S. 1988. Origin of the Hominidae: The record of African large hominoid evolution between 14 My and 4 My. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 31:49-83.
161. Hill A, Wark S, Dein A, Garniss C, Drake R. 1992. Earliest Homo. Nature 355:719-722.
162. Holloway RL. 2000. Brain. In: Delson E, Tattersall I, Couvering JV, Brooks AS, editors. Encyclopedia of human evolution and prehistory. New York: Garland Publishing. p 141-149.
163. Howell FC. 1999. Paleo-demes, species clades, and extinctions in the Pleistocene hominin record. J Anthropol Res 55:191-243.
164. Hsu KJ, Montadert L, Bernoulli D, Cita MB, Erickson A, Garrison RE, Kidd RB, Melieres R, Muller C, Wright R. 1977. History of the Mediterranean salinity crisis. Nature 267:399-403.
165. 4 plant abundance. Science 293:1647-1651.
166. 13C analyses of sediments from Sacred Lake, Mt. Kenya. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 63:1383-1404.
167. Huang YS, Shuman B, Wang Y, Webb T, Grimm EC, Jacobson GL. 2006. Climatic and environmental controls on the variation of C-3 and C-4 plant abundances in central Florida for the past 62,000 years. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 237:428-435.
168. Hughen KA, Eglinton TI, Xu L, Makou M. 2004. Abrupt tropical vegetation response to rapid climate changes. Science 304:1955-1959.
169. Huntley RW, Webb T. 1989. Migration: "species" response to climatic variations caused by changes in earth's orbit. J Biogeogr 16:5-19.
170. Imbrie J, Imbire KP. 1979. Ice ages: solving the mystery. Short Hills, NJ: Enslow Publishers.
171. Jablonski NG, Whitford MJ, Roberts-Smith N, Qinqi X. 2000. The influence of life history and diet on the distribution of catarrhine primates during the Pleistocene in eastern Asia. J Hum Evol 39:131-157.
172. Jacobs BF. 1999. Estimation of rainfall variables from leaf characters in tropical Africa. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 145:231-250.
173. Jacobs BF. 2002. Estimation of low-latitude paleoclimates using fossil angiosperm leaves: examples from the Miocene Tugen Hills, Kenya. Paleobiology 28:399-421.
174. Jacobs BF. 2004. Palaeobotanical studies from tropical Africa: relevance to the evolution of forest, woodland and savannah biomes. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 359:1573-1583.
175. Jacobs BF. 2006. The plant fossil record and implications for phytogeography in tropical Africa. In: Ghazanfar SA, Beentje HJ, editors. Proceedings of the Volume of the 17th Meeting of the Association for the Taxonomic Study of the Flora of Tropical Africa (AETFAT), Addis Ababa. p 191-203.
176. Jacobs BF, Deino AL. 1996. Test of climate-leaf physiognomy regression models, their application to two Miocene floras from Kenya, and 40Ar/39Ar dating of the Late Miocene Kapturo site. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 123:259-271.
177. Jacobs BF, Herendeen PS. 2004. Eocene dry climate and woodland vegetation in tropical Africa reconstructed from fossil leaves from northern Tanzania. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 213:115-123.
178. Jacobs BF, Kingston JD, Jacobs LL. 1999. The origin of grass-dominated ecosystems. Ann MO Bot Gard 86:590-643.
179. Jansson R, Dynesius M. 2002. The fate of clades in a world of recurrent climate change: Milankovitch oscillations and evolution. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 33:741-777.
180. Johnson TC, Brown ET, McManus J, Barry S, Barker P, Gasse F. 2002. A high-resolution paleoclimate record spanning the past 25,000 years in southern East Africa. Science 296:113-132.
181. Jolly CJ. 1970. The seed-eaters: a new model of hominid differentiation based on a baboon analogy. Man 5:5-26.
182. Kaiser TM, Franz-Odendaal TA. 2004. A mixed-feeding Equus species from the Middle Pleistocene of South Africa. Quatern Res 62:316-323.
183. Kalb J, Jolly C, Tebedge S, Mebrate A, Smart C, Oswald E, Whitehead P, Wood C, Adefris T, Rawn-Schatzinger V. 1982. Vertebrate faunas from the Awash group. Middle Awash Valley, Afar, Ethiopia. J Vertebr Paleontol 2:237-258.
184. Kappelman J. 1988. A new reconstruction of the paleoenvironment of Kenyapithecus at Ft. Ternan. Am J Phys Anthropol 75:229.
185. Kappelman J. 1991. The paleoenvironment of Kenyapithecus at Fort Ternan. J Hum Evol 20:95-129.
186. Kappelman J, Plummer T, Bishop L, Duncan A, Appleton S. 1997. Bovids as indicators of Plio-Pleistocene paleoenvironments in East Africa. J Hum Evol 3:229-256.
187. 4 grasslands. Ecol Lett 8:683-690.
188. Kennett JP. 1995. A review of polar climatic evolution during the Neogene, based on the marine sediment record. In: Vrba ES, Denton GH, Partridge TC, Burckle LH, editors. Paleoclimate and evolution, with emphasis on human origins. New Haven: Yale University Press. p 49-64.
189. Kerr JT, Packer L. 1997. Habitat heterogeneity as a determinant of mammal species richness in high-energy regions. Nature 385:252-254.
190. Kingdon J. 2003. Lowly origin - where, when, and why our ancestors first stood up. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
191. Kingston JD. 1999. Environmental determinants in early hominid evolution: issues and evidence from the Tugen Hills, Kenya. In: Andrews P, Banham P, editors. Late Cenozoic environments and hominid evolution: a tribute to Bill Bishop. London: Geological Society. p 69-84.
192. Kingston JD. 2003. Sources of variability in modern East African herbivore enamel: implications for paleodietary and paleoecological reconstructions. Am J Phys Anthropol 120:130.
193. Kingston JD, Deino AL, Edgar RK, Hill A. Astronomically forced climate change in the Kenyan Rift Valley 2.7-2.55 Ma: implications for the evolution of early hominin ecosystems. J Hum Evol (in press).
194. Kingston JD, Harrison T. 2007. Isotopic dietary reconstructions of Pliocene herbivores at Laetoli: implications for early hominin paleoecology. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 243:272-306.
195. Kingston JD, Jacobs BF, Hill A, Deino A. 2002. Stratigraphy, age and environments of the Late Miocene Mpesida Beds, Tugen Hills, Kenya. J Hum Evol 42:95-116.
196. Kingston JD, Marino BD, Hill A. 1994. Isotopic evidence for Neogene hominid paleoenvironments in the Kenya Rift Valley. Science 264:955-959.
197. Koch PL, Fisher DC, Dettman D. 1989. Oxygen isotope variation in the tusks of extinct proboscideans: a measure of season of death and seasonality. Geology 17:515-519.
198. 18O: accounting for diet and physiological adaptation. Geochim Cosmochim 60:4811-4829.
199. Kohn MJ, Schoeninger MJ, Valley JW. 1996. Herbivore tooth oxygen isotope compositions: effects of diet and physiology. Geochim Cosmochim 60:3889-3896.
200. Kohn MJ, Schoeninger MJ, Valley JW. 1998. Variability in oxygen isotope compositions of herbivore teeth: reflections of seasonality or developmental physiology. Chem Geol 152:97-112.
201. Kortland A. 1981. Geological processes that might explain the divergence of the chimpanzee, gorilla and human lineage. Lecture. Colloquium of African Geology, Milton Keynes, April 13-15, Vol. 271. p 88-95.
202. Kovarovic K, Andrews P. 2007. Bovid postcranial ecomorphological survey of the Laetoli paleoenvironment. J Hum Evol 52:663-680.
203. Kovarovic K, Andrews P, Aiello L. 2002. The palaeoecology of the Upper Ndolanya Beds at Laetoli, Tanzania. J Hum Evol 43:395-418.
204. Kullmer O. 1999. Evolution of African Plio-Pleistocene Suids (Artiodactyla: Suidae) based on tooth pattern analysis. Kaupia 9:1-34.
205. Kussell E, Leibler S. 2005. Phenotypic diversity. Population growth, and information in fluctuating environments. Science 309:2075-2078.
206. Kutzbach JE. 1981. Monsoon climate of the early Holocene: climate experiment with the earth's orbital parameters for 9000 years ago. Science 214:59-61.
207. Kutzbach JE, Bonan G, Foley J, Harrison SP. 1996. Vegetation and soil feedbacks on the response of the African monsoon to orbital forcing in the early to middle Holocene. Nature 384:623-626.
208. Kutzbach JE, Street-Perrott FA. 1985. Milankovitch forcing of fluctuations in the level of tropical lakes from 18 to 0 kyr BP. Nature 317:130-134.
209. Lamb H, Gasse G, Benkaddour A, Hamoutl NE, Kaars SBd, Perkins WT, Pearce NJ, Roberts CN. 1995. Relationship between century-scale Holocene arid intervals in tropical and temperate zones. Nature 373:134-137.
210. Laporte LF, Zhilman AL. 1983. Plates. Climate and hominoid evolution. S Afr J Sci 79:96-110.
211. Laskar J, Robutel P, Joutel F, Gastineau M, Correia ACM, Levrard B. 2004. A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth. Astron Astrophys 428:261-285.
212. Leakey LSB. 1962. A new lower Pliocene fossil primate from Kenya. Ann Mag Nat Hist Ser 113:689-696.
213. Leakey MG, Feibel CS, Bernor RL, Harris JM, Cerling TE, Stewart KM, Storrs GW, Walker A, Werdelin L, Winkler AJ. 1996. Lothagam: a record of faunal change in the Late Miocene of East Africa. J Vertebr Paleolontol 16:556-570.
214. Leakey MG, Feibel CS, McDougall I, Walker A. 1995. New four-million-year-old hominid species from Kanapoi and Allia Bay, Kenya. Nature 376:565-571.
215. Leakey MG, Feibel CS, McDougall I, Ward C, Walker A. 1998. New specimens and confirmation of an early age for Australopithecus anamensis. Nature 393:62-66.
216. Leakey MG, Spoor F, Brown FH, Gathogo PN, Kiarie C, Leakey LN, McDougall I. 2001. New hominin genus from eastern Africa shows diverse middle Pliocene lineages. Nature 410:433-440.
217. Lepre CJ, Quinn RL, Joordens JCA, Swisher CC, Feibel CS. Pilo-Pleistocene facies environments from the KBS Member, Koobi Fora Formation: implications for climate controls on the development of lake-margin hominin habitats in the northeast Turkana Basin (northwest Kenya). J Hum Evol (in press).
218. Leuschner DC, Sirocko F. 2003. Orbital insolation forcing of the Indian monsoon - a motor for global climate changes. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 197:83-95.
219. Levin NE, Cerling TE, Passey BH, Harris JM, Ehleringer JR. 2006. A stable isotope aridity index for terrestrial environments. PNAS 103:11201-11205.
220. Levin NE, Quade J, Simpson SW, Semaw S, Rogers M. 2004. Isotopic evidence for Plio-Pleistocene environmental change at Gona, Ethiopia. Earth Planet Sci Lett 219:93-110.
221. Lezine A-M. 1991. West African Paleoclimates during the last climatic cycle inferred from an Atlantic deep-sea pollen record. Quatern Res 35:456-463.
222. 18O records. Paleoceanography 20:PA1003.
223. Liu Z, Otto-Bliesner B, Kutzbach J, Li L, Shields C. 2003. Coupled climate simulation of the evolution of global monsoons in the Holocene. J Clim 16:2472-2490.
224. Liutkus CM, Ashley GM, Wright JD. 2000. Short-term changes and Milankovitch cyclicity at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania; evidence from sedimentology and stable isotopes. Abstr Programs Geol Soc Am 32:21.
225. Longinelli A. 1984. Oxygen isotopes in mammal bone phosphate: a new tool for paleohydrological and paleoclimatological research? Geochim Cosmochim 48:385-390.
226. Lourens LJ, Antonarakou A, Hilgen FJ, Van Hoof AAM, Verg3 naud-Grazzini C, Zachariasse WJ. 1996. Evaluation of the Plio-Pleistocene astronomical timescale. Paleoceanography 11:391-413.
227. Lovejoy CO. 1981. The origin of man. Science 211:341-350.
228. Luz B, Kolodny Y. 1985. Oxygen isotope variations in phosphate of biogenic apatites. IV Mammal teeth and bones. Earth Planet Sci Lett 75:29-36.
229. Macho GA, Leakey MG, Williamson DK, Jiang Y. 2003. Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction: evidence for seasonality at Allia Bay, Kenya, at 3.9 million years. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 199:17-30.
230. Macho GA, Reid DJ, Leakey MG, Jablonski N, Beynon AD. 1996. Climatic effects on dental development of Theropithicus oswaldi from Koobi Fora and Olorgesailie. J Hum Evol 30:57-70.
231. Marlow J, Lange CB, Wefer G, Rosell-Mele A. 2000. Upwelling intensification as part of the Pliocene-Pleistocene climate transition. Science 290:2288-2291.
232. Maslin MA, Li XS, Loutre MF, Berger A. 1998. The contribution of orbital forcing to the progressive intensification of northern hemisphere glaciation. Quatern Sci Rev 17:441-426.
233. Mayr E. 1942. Systematics and the origin of species from the viewpoint of a zoologist. New York: Columbia University Press.
234. McBrearty S, Jablonski NG. 2005. First fossil chimpanzee. Nature 437:105-108.
235. McKee J. 1995. Turnover patterns and species longevity of large mammals from the late Pliocene and Pleistocene of southern Africa: a comparison of simulated and empirical data. J Theor Biol 172:141-147.
236. McKee JK. 1999. The autocatalytic nature of hominid evolution in African Plio-Pleistocene environments. In: Bromage T, Schrenk F, editors. African biogeography and human evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p 57-67.
237. McKee JK. 2000. The riddled chain. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.
238. Miller KG, Fairbanks RG, Mountain GS. 1987. Tertiary oxygen isotope synthesis, sea level history, and continental margin erosion. Paleoceanography 2:1-19.
239. Miller W. 2001. What's in a name? ecological entities and the marine paleoecologic record. In: Allmon WD, Bttjer DJ, editors. Evolutionary paleoecology: the ecological context of macroevolutionary change. New York: Columbia University Press. p 15-34.
240. Moreno A, Targarona J, Henderiks J, Canals M, Freudenthal T, Meggers H. 2001. Orbital forcing of dust supply to the North Canary Basin over the last 250 kyr. Quatern Sci Rev 20:1327-1339.
241. 4 plants in the Neogene from Pakistan and Kenya. Nature 367:162-165.
242. Morley RJ. 2000. Origin and evolution of tropical rain forests. Chichester: Wiley.
243. Morley RJ, Richards K. 1993. Gramineae cuticle: a key indicator of late Cenozoic climatic change in the Niger Delta. Rev Paleobot Palynol 77:119-127.
244. Mudelsee M, Stattegger K. 1997. Exploring the structure of the mid-Pleistocene revolution with advanced methods of time-series analysis. Geologische Rundschau 86:499-511.
245. Nakaya H. 1994. Faunal change of Late Miocene Africa and Eurasia: Mammalian fauna from the Namurungule Formation. Samburu Hills, northern Kenya. Afr Stud Mongr 20:11-112.
246. Nesbit-Evans EM, Van Couvering JAH, Andrews P. 1981. Paleoecology of Miocene sites in western Kenya. J Hum Evol 10:98-121.
247. Nicholson SE. 1996. A review of climate dynamics and climate variability in eastern Africa. In: Johnson TC, Odada EO, editors. The limnology, climatology and paleoclimatology of the East African lakes. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Publishers. p 25-56.
248. Nicholson SE. 2000. The nature of rainfall variability over Africa on time scales of decades to millennia. Global Planet Change 26:137-158.
249. 2 fixation in photosynthesis. In: Lange OL, Nobel PS, Osmond CB, Ziegler H, editors. Physiological plant ecology II. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p 479-548.
250. Owen RB, Crossley R. 1992. Spatial and temporal distribution of diatoms in sediments of Lake Malawi, Central Africa, and ecological implications. J Paleolimnol 7:55-71.
251. 4 grasses. Science 285:876-879.
252. Paillard D, Labeyrie L, Yiou P. 1996. Macintosh program performs time-series analyses (AnalySeries 1.2 updated 2000). EOS Trans Am Geophys Union 77:379.
253. Partridge TC, Bond GC, Hartnady CJH, deMenocal PB, Ruddiman WF. 1995. Climatic effects of late Neogene tectonism and volcanism.
254. Patterson B. 1966. A new locality for early Pleistocene fossil in northwestern Kenya. Nature 212:577-578.
255. Perry GLW. 2002. Landscapes, space and equilibrium: shifting viewpoints. Progr Phys Geogr 26:339-359.
256. Pezzulli S, Stephenson DB, Hannachi A. 2005. The variability of seasonality. J Clim 18:71-88.
257. Phillips JD. 2004. Divergence, sensitivity, and nonequilibrium in ecosystems. Geogr Anal 36:369-383.
258. Pickett STA, Cadenasso ML, Benning TL. 2003. Biotic and abiotic variability as key determinants of savanna heterogeneity at multiple spatiotemporal scales. In: Toit JTD, Rogers KH, Biggs HC, editors. The Kruger experience: ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity. Washington, DC: Island Press. p 22-40.
259. Pickford M. 1983. Sequence and environments of the lower and middle Miocene hominoids of western Kenya. In: Ciochon RL, Corruccini RS, editors. New interpretations of ape and human ancestry. p 421-439.
260. Pickford M. 1985. A new look at Kenyapithecus based on recent discoveries in western Kenya. J Hum Evol 14:113-144.
261. Pickford M. 1987. Fort Ternan (Kenya) paleoecology. J Hum Evol 16:305-309.
262. Pickford M. 1988. Premiers resultats de la mission de l'Uganda palaeontology expedition a Nkondo (Pliocene du bassin du lac Albert, Ouganda). C R Acad Sci Paris Ser II 306:315-320.
263. Pickford M, Senut B. 2001. The geological and faunal context of Late Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino, Kenya. C R Acad Sci Paris Sci de la Terre et des Planeter/Earth Planet Sci 332:145-152.
264. Pilbeam D. 1989. Human fossil history and evolutionary paradigms. In: Hecht MK, editor. Evolutionary biology at the crossroads. London: Queens College Press. p 117-138.
265. Pilskahn CH, Johnson TC. 1991. Seasonal signals in Lake Malawi. Limnol Oceanogr 36:544-557.
266. Piperno DR. 1988. Phytolith analysis: an archaeological and geological perspective. San Diego: Academic Press.
267. Plummer T. 2004. Flaked stones and old bones: biological and cultural evolution at the dawn of technology. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 47:118-164.
268. Plummer T, Bishop LC, Ditchfield P, Hicks J. 1999. Research on late Pliocene Oldowan sites at Kanjera South, Kenya. J Hum Evol 36:151-170.
269. Plummer TW, Bishop LC. 1994. Hominid paleoecology at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, as indicated by antelope remains. J Hum Evol 27:47-75.
270. Pokras EM, Mix AC. 1985. Eolian evidence for spacial variability of late Quaternary climates in tropical Africa. Quatern Res 24:137-149.
271. Pokras EM, Mix AC. 1987. Earth's precession cycle and Quaternary climatic change in tropical Africa. Nature 326:486-487.
272. Potts R. 1996. Evolution and climate variability. Science 273:922-923.
273. Potts R. 1998. Variability selection in hominid evolution. Evol Anthropol 7:81-96.
274. Potts R, Behrensmeyer AK, Ditchfield P. 1999. Paleolandscape variation and early Pleistocene hominid activities: members 1 and 7, Olorgesailie Formation, Kenya. J Hum Evol 37:747-788.
275. Prell WL, VanCampo E. 1986. Coherent response of Arabian Sea upwelling and pollen transport to late Quaternary monsoonal winds. Nature 323:526-528.
276. Quade J, Levin N, Semaw S, Stout D, Renne P, Rogers M, Simpson S. 2004. Paleoenvironments of the earliest stone toolmakers, Gona, Ethiopia. GSA Bull 116:1529-1544.
277. Ravelo AC, Andreasen DH, Lyle M, Lyle AO, Wara MW. 2004. Regional climate shifts caused by gradual global cooling in the Pliocene epoch. Nature 429:263-267.
278. Raymo ME, Ruddiman WF. 1992. Tectonic forcing of late Cenozoic climate change. Nature 359:117-122.
279. Rayner RJ, Moon BP, Masters JC. 1993. The Makapansgat australopithecine environment. J Hum Evol 24:219-231.
280. Rea DK, Snoeckx H, Joseph LH. 1998. Late Cenozoic eolian deposition in the North Pacific: Asia drying. Tibetan uplift and cooling of the Northern Hemisphere. Paleoceanography 13: 215-224.
281. Reed KE. 1997. Early hominid evolution and ecological change through the African Plio-Pleistocene. J Hum Evol 32:289-322.
282. Reed KE. 1998. Using large mammal communities to examine ecological and taxonomic structure and predict vegetation in extant and extinct assemblages. Paleobiology 24:384-408.
283. Reed KE, Fish JL. 2005. Tropical and temperate seasonal influences on human evolution. In: Brockman DK, van Schaik CP, editors. Seasonality in primates: studies of living and extinct human and non-human primates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p 489-518.
284. Retallack GJ, Dugas DP, Bestland EA. 1990. Fossil soils and grasses of a middle Miocene East African grassland. Science 247:1325-1328.
285. Richerson PJ, Bettinger RL, Boyd R. 2005. Evolution of a restless planet: were environmental variability and environmental change major drivers of human evolution. In: Wuketits FM, Ayala FJ, editors. Handbook of evolution, Vol. 2: the evolution of living systems (including hominids). Weinheim: Wiley-Verlag.
286. Rieley G, Collier RJ, Jones DM, Eglinton G, Eakin PA, Fallick AE. 1991. Sources of sedimentary lipids deduced from stable carbon-isotope analyses of individual compounds. Nature 352:425-427.
287. Robinson JT. 1954. Prehominid dentition and hominid evolution. Evolution 8:324-334.
288. Rodrigues D, Abell PI, Kropelin S. 2000. Seasonality in the early Holocene climate of northwest Sudan: interpretation of Etheria elliptica shell isotopic data. Global Planet Change 26:181-187.
289. Rossignol-Strick M. 1983. African monsoons, an immediate climate response to orbital insolation. Nature 304:46-49.
290. Rossignol-Strick M, Nesteroff W, Olive P, Vergnaud-Grazzini C. 1982. After the deluge: Mediterranean stagnation and sapropel formation. Nature 295:105-110.
291. Roy K, Valentine JW, Jablonsik D, Kidwell SM. 1996. Scales of climatic variability and time averaging in Pleistocene biotas: implications for ecology and evolution. Trends Ecol Evol 11:458-463.
292. Ruddiman WF. 1997. Tropical Atlantic terrigenous fluxes since 25,000 yrs B.P. Marine Geol 136:189-207.
293. Ruddiman WF. 2001. Earth's climate: past and future. New York: W.H. Freeman.
294. Saneyoshi M, Nakayama K, Sakai T, Sawada Y, Ishida H. 2006. Half graben filling processes in the early phase of continental rifting: the Miocene Namurungule Formation of the Kenya Rift. Sedimentary Geology 186:111-131.
295. Schefuß E, Schouten S, Jansen JHF, Damste JSS. 2003. African vegetation controlled by tropical sea surface temperatures in the mid-Pleistocene. Nature 422:418-421.
296. Schoeninger MJ, Reeser H, Hallin K. 2003. Paleoenvironment of Australopithecus anamensis at Allia Bay, East Turkana, Kenya: evidence from mammalian herbivore enamel stable isotopes. J Anthropol Archaeol 22:200-207.
297. Scholz CA. 2000. The Malawi Drilling Project: calibrating the record of climatic change from the continental tropics. GSA Abstr Programs 32:A-388.
298. Scholz CA, Cohen AS, Johnson TC, King JW, Moran K. 2006. The 2005 Lake Malawi Scientific Drilling Project. Sci Drilling 2:17-19.
299. Semaw S, Rogers MJ, Quade J, Renne PR, Butler RF, Dominguez-Rodrigo M, Stout D, Hart WS, Pickering T, Simpson S. 2003. 2.6-Million-year-old stone tools and associated bones from OGS-6 and OGS-7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopia. J Hum Evol 45:169-177.
300. Semaw S, Simpson SW, Quade J, Renne PR, Butler RF, Mcintosh WC, Levin N, Dominguez-Rodrigo M, Rogers MJ. 2005. Early Pliocene hominids from Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 433:301-305.
301. Sepulchre P, Ramstein G, Fluteau R, Schuster M, Tiercelin J-J, Brunet M. 2006. Tectonic uplift and eastern Africa aridification. Science 313:1419-1423.
302. Shackleton N. 1967. Oxygen isotope analyses and Pleistocene temperatures re-assessed. Nature 215:15-17.
303. Shackleton NJ, Backman J, Zimmerman H, Kent DV, Hall MA, Roberts DG, Schnitker D, Baldauf JG, Desprairies A, Homrighausen R, Huddlestun P, Keene JB, Kalternback AJ, Krumsiek KAO, Morton AC, Murray JW, Westberg-Smith J. 1984. Oxygen isotope calibration of the onset of ice-rafting and history of glaciation in the North Atlantic region. Nature 307:620-623.
304. Sharp JD, Cerling TE. 1998. Fossil isotope records of seasonal climate and ecology: straight from the horse's mouth. Geology 26:219-222.
305. Shipman P. 1986. Paleoecology of Fort Ternan reconsidered. J Hum Evol 15:193-204.
306. Shipman P, Walker A, Van Couvering JA, Hooker PJ, Miller JA. 1981. The Fort Ternan hominoid site, Kenya: geology, age, taphonomy, and paleoecology. J Hum Evol 10:49-72.
307. Sikes NE. 1994. Early hominid habitat preferences in East Africa: paleosol carbon isotopic evidence. J Hum Evol 27:25-45.
308. Sikes NE, Potts R, Behrensmeyer AK. 1999. Early Pleistocene habitat in member 1 Olorgesailie based on paleosol stable isotopes. J Hum Evol 37:721-746.
309. Skinner MF, Hopwood D. 2004. Hypothesis for the causes and periodicity of repetitive linear enamel hypoplasia in large, wild African (Pan troglodytes and Gorilla gorilla) and Asian (Pongo pygmaeus) apes. Am J Phys Anthropol 123:216-235.
310. 4 paleograssland reconstruction. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 207:277-304.
311. Smith GE. 1924. The evolution of man. London: Oxford University Press.
312. Soligo C, Andrews P. 2005. Taphonomic bias, taxonomic bias and historical non-equivalence of faunal structure in early hominin localities. J Hum Evol 49:206-229.
313. Spicer RA. 1989. The formation and interpretation of plant fossil assemblages. Adv Bot Res 16:96-191.
314. Sponheimer M, Lee-Thorp JA. 1999. Oxygen isotopes in enamel carbonate and their ecological significance. J Archaeol Sci 26:723-728.
315. Sponheimer M, Passey BH, de Ruiter DJ, Guatelli-Steinberg D, Cerling TE, Lee-Thorp JA. 2006. Isotopic evidence for dietary variability in the early hominin Paranthropus robustus. Science 314:980-982.
316. Stager JC, Mayewski PA, Meeker LD. 2002. Cooling cycles. Heinrich event 1, and the desiccation of Lake Victoria. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 183:169-178.
317. Stanley SM. 1995. Climatic forcing and the origin of the human genus. In: Kennett J, Stanley SM, editors. Effects of past global change on life. National Academy of Sciences, Studies in geophysics. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. p 233-243.
318. Stebbins GL. 1950. Variation and evolution in plants. New York: Columbia University Press.
319. Stenseth NC, Maynard-Smith J. 1984. Coevolution in ecosystems: Red Queen evolution or stasis? Evolution 38:870-880.
320. Street-Perrott FA, Harrison SA. 1984. Temporal variations in lake levels since 30,000 yr BP - an index of the global hydrological cycle. In: Hansen JE, Takahashi T, editors. Climate processes and sensitivity. Washington, DC: AGU. p 118-129.
321. Suwa G, Kono RT, Katoh S, Asfaw B, Beyene Y. 2007. A new species of great ape from the Late Miocene epoch in Ethiopia. Nature 488:921-924.
322. Taieb M, Johanson DC, Coppens Y, Aronson JL. 1976. Geological and palaeontological background of Hadar hominid site, Afar, Ethiopia. Nature 260:289-293.
323. Tattersall I. 2000. Paleoanthropology: the last half-century. Evol Anthropol 9:25-40.
324. Tattersall I, Schwartz JH. 2000. Extinct humans. Boulder, CO: Westview.
325. 4 grasses in North America. Oecologia 23:1-12.
326. Tews J, Brose U, Grimm V, Tielborger K, Wichmann MC, Schwager M, Jeltsch F. 2004. Animal species diversity driven by habitat heterogeneity/diversity: the importance of keystone structures. J Biogeogr 31:79-92.
327. Thompson LG, Mosley-Thompson E, Davis M, Henderson KA, Brecher HA, Zagorodnov VS, Mashiotta TA, Lin P-N, Mikhalenko VN, Hardy DR, Beer J. 2002. Kilimanjaro ice core records: evidence of Holocene climate change in tropical Africa. Science 298:589-593.
328. 13C analysis of diet. Oecologia (Berlin) 57:32-37.
329. 4 grasses and carbon isotope discrimination along an altitudinal and moisture gradient in Kenya. Oecologia 37:337-350.
330. Tobias PV. 1995. The brain of the first hominids. In: Changeux JP, Chavillon J, editors. Origins of the human brain. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p 61-81.
331. Tojo B, Ohno T. 1999. Continuous growth-line sequences in gastropod shells. Paleogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 145:183-191.
332. Trauth MH, Deino A, Strecker MR. 2001. Response of the East African climate to orbital forcing during the last interglacial (130-117 ka) and the early last glacial (117-60 ka). Geology 29:499-502.
333. Trauth MH, Deino AL, Bergner AGN, Strecker MR. 2003. East African climate change and orbital forcing during the last 175 kyr BP. Earth Planet Sci 206:297-313.
334. Trauth MH, Maslin MA, Deino A, Strecker M. 2005. Late Cenozoic moisture history of East Africa. Science 309:2051-2053.
335. Trauth MH, Maslin M, Deino A, Strecker MR, Bergner AGN, Duhnforth M. High- and low-latitude forcing of Plio-Pleistocene East African climate and human evolution. J Hum Evol (in press).
336. Van Couvering JAH. 1980. Community evolution in East Africa during the late Cenozoic. In: Behrensmeyer AK, Hill A, editors. Fossil in the making, vertebrate taphonomy, and paleoecology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p 272-298.
337. van Dam JA, Aziz HA, Sierra MAA, Hilgen FJ, Ostende LWvdH, Lourens LJ, Mein P, Meulen AJvd, Pelaez-Campomanes P. 2006. Long-period astronomical forcing of mammal turnover. Nature 443:687-691.
338. Van Valen L. 1973. A new evolutionary law. Evol Theory 1:1-30.
339. Verardo DJ, Ruddiman WG. 1996. Late Pleistocene charcoal in tropical Atlantic deep-sea sediments: climatic and geochemical significance. Geology 24:855-857.
340. Verschuren D, Laird K, Cumming BF. 2000. Rainfall and drought in equatorial East Africa during the past 1,100 years. Nature 403:410-414.
341. Vignaud P, Duringer P, Mackaye HT, Likius A, Blondel C, Boisserie J-R, Bonis Ld, Eisenmann V, Etienne M-E, Geraads D, Guy F, Lehmann T, Lihoreau F, Lopez-Martinez N, Mourer-Chauvire C, Otero O, Rage J-C, Schuster M, Viriot L, Zazzo A, Brunet M. 2002. Geology and palaeontology of the Upper Miocene Toros-Menalla hominid locality, Chad. Nature 418:152-155.
342. Vrba ES. 1974. Chronological and ecological implications of the fossil Bovidae at the Sterkfontein australopithecine site. Nature 256:19-23.
343. Vrba ES. 1975. Some evidence of chronology and palaeoecology of Sterkfontein, Swartkrans and Kromdraai from the fossil Bovidae. Nature 254:301-304.
344. Vrba ES. 1985. Ecological and adaptive changes associated with early hominid evolution. In: Delson E, editor. Ancestors: the hard evidence. New York: Alan R. Liss. p 63-71.
345. Vrba ES. 1988. Late Pliocene climatic events and hominid evolution. In: Grine FE, editor. Evolutionary history of the "robust" australopithecines. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. p 405-426.
346. Vrba ES. 1992. Mammals as key to evolutionary theory. J Mammal 73:1-28.
347. Vrba ES. 1993. Turnover-pulses, the Red Queen, and related topics. Am J Sci 293A:418-452.
348. Vrba ES. 1995. The fossil record of African antelopes (Mammalia, Bovidae) in relation to human evolution and paleoclimate. In: Vrba ES, Denton GH, Partridge TC, Burckle LH, editors. Paleoclimate and evolution, with emphasis on human origins. New Haven: Yale University Press. p 385-411.
349. Vrba ES. 2000. Major features of Neogene mammalian evolution in Africa. In: Partridge TC, Maud R, editors. Cenozoic geology of southern Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p 277-304.
350. Vrba ES, Denton GH, Partridge TC, Burckle LH. 1995. Paleoclimate and evolution, with emphasis on human origins. New Haven: Yale University Press.
351. Vrba ES, Denton GH, Prentice ML. 1989. Climatic influences on early hominid behavior. OSSA 14:127-156.
352. Walker AC. 1987. Fossil galaginae from Laetoli. In: Leakey MD, Harris JM, editors. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
353. Walker AC, Leakey RE, Harris JM, Brown FH. 1986. 2.5 Myr Australopithecus boisei from west of Lake Turkana, Kenya. Nature 322:517-522.
354. Wallace AR. 1870. The measurement of geological time. Nature 1:399-401.
355. Washburn SL. 1960. Tools and human evolution. Sci Am 203:63-75.
356. Wesselman HB. 1985. Fossil micromammals as indicators of climatic change about 2.4 Myr ago in the Omo Valley, Ethiopia. S Afr J Sci 81:260-261.
357. White T. 2003. Early hominids - diversity or distortion. Science 299:1994-1997.
358. White TD. 1988. The comparative biology of "robust" Australopithecus: clues from context. In: Grine FE, editor. The evolutionary history of the "robust" australopithecines. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. p 449-483.
359. White TD. 1995. African omnivores: global climatic change and Plio-Pleistocene hominids and suids. In: Vrba ES, Denton GH, Partridge TC, Burckle LH, editors. Paleoclimate and evolution, with emphasis on human origins. New Haven: Yale University Press. p 369-384.
360. White TD, Wolegabriel G, Asfaw B, Ambrose S, Beyene Y, Bernor RL, Boisserie J-R, Currie B, Gilbert H, Haile-Selassie Y, Hart WK, Hlusko LJ, Howell FC, Kono RT, Lehmann T, Louchart A, Lovejoy CO, Renne PR, Saegusa H, Vrba ES, Wesselman H, Suwa G. 2006. Asa Issie, Aramis and the origin of Australopithecus. Nature 440:883-889.
361. Williamson PG. 1985. Evidence for an early Pli-Pleistocene rainforest expansion in East Africa. Nature 315:487-489.
362. WoldeGabriel G, Haile-Selassie Y, Renne PR, Hart WK, Ambrose SH, Asfaw B, Heiken G, White T. 2001. Geology and palaeontology of the Late Miocene Middle Awash Valley, Afar Rift, Ethiopia. Nature 412:17-178.
363. WoldeGabriel G, White TD, Suwa G, Renne P, Heinselin Jd, Hart WK, Heiken G. 1994. Ecological and temporal placement of early Pliocene hominids at Aramis, Ethiopia. Nature 371:330-333.
364. Wolfe J. 1993. A method of obtaining climatic parameters from leaf assemblages. US Geol Surv Bull 2040:1-71.
365. Wood B. 2005. Human evolution: a very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
366. Wood BA, Richmond BJ. 2000. Human evolution: taxonomy and paleobiology. J Anat 196:19-60.
367. Wynn JG. 2000. Paleosols, stable carbon isotopes, and paleoenvironmental interpretation of Kanapoi, northern Kenya. J Hum Evol 39:411-432.
368. Wynn JG. 2004. Influence of Plio-Pleistocene aridification on human evolution: evidence from paleosols of the Turkana Basin, Kenya. Am J Phys Anthropol 123:106-118.
369. Yasui K, Kunimatsu Y, Kuga N, Bajope B, Ishida H. 1992. Fossil mammals from the Neogene strata in the Sinda Basin, eastern Zaire. Afr Stud Mongr 17:87-107.
370. Zachos JC, Shackleton NJ, Revenaugh JS, Palike H, Flower BP. 2001. Climate response to orbital forcing across the Oligocene-Miocene boundary. Science 292:274-278.
371. Zazzo A, Bocherens H, Brunet M, Beauvilain A, Billiou D, Mackaye HT, Vignaud P, Mariotti A. 2000. Herbivore paleodiet and paleoenvironmental changes in Chad during the Pliocene using stable isotope ratios of tooth enamel carbonate. Paleobiology 26:294-309.