Occupational Lead Poisoning in Battery Workers: the Failure to Apply the Precautionary Principle

Labour History

Volumn , Issue 84, 2003, Pages 1-19

  Penrose, Beris ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 36549052850     PISSN: 00236942     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3828/27515898     Document Type: Article

References (201)

1. Jacqueline Karnell Corn, Response to Occupational Health Hazards: a Historical Perspective, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1992, p. 2.
2. Corn, Response to Occupational Health Hazards, p. 4.
3. Alice Hamilton, Lead Poisoning in the Manufacture of Storage Batteries (Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, no. 165), Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1915, p. 27;
4. International Labour Office, 'Accumulators (Storage Batteries)', in Occupation and Health: an Encyclopaedia of Hygiene, Pathology and Social Welfare, vol. 1, International Labour Office, Geneva, 1934, p. 29.
5. Jerome Nriagu, 'Clair Patterson and Robert Kehoe's Paradigm of "Show Me the Data" on Environmental Lead Poisoning', Environmental Research, section A, vol. 78, August 1998, p. 74.
6. Sanford Lewis, 'The Precautionary Principle and Corporate Disclosure', in Carolyn Raffensperger and Joel A. Tickner (eds), Protecting Public Health and the Environment: Implementing the Precautionary Principle, Island Press, Washington, D.C., 1999, pp. 242-243.
7. Andrew Jordon and Timothy O'Riordan, 'The Precautionary Principle in Contemporary Environmental Policy and Polities', in Raffensperger and T?ckner (eds), Protecting Public Health and the Environment, p. 16.
8. Lewis, "The Precautionary Principle and Corporate Disclosure', p. 241.
9. Richard Gillespie, 'Accounting for Lead Poisoning: the Medical Politics of Occupational Health', Social History, vol. 15, no. 3, October 1990, pp. 303-331;
10. Vicente Navarro, 'Work, Ideology, and Science: the Case of Medicine', International Journal of Health Services, vol. 10, no. 4, 1980, pp. 523 550;
11. Karl Figlio, 'How Does Illness Mediate Social Relations? Workmen's Compensation and Medico-Legal Practices, 1890-1940', in P. Wright and A. Treacher (eds), The Problem of Medical Knowledge, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 1982, pp. 174-224.
12. D. Michaels, 'Waiting for the Body Count: Corporate Decision Making and Bladder Cancer in the U.S. Dye Industry', Medical Anthropology Quarterly, new series, vol. 2, no. 3, September 1988, pp. 213-232;
13. D. Lilienfeld, 'The Silence: the Asbestos Industry and Early Occupational Cancer Research - a Case Study', American Journal of Public Health, vol. 81, no. 6, June 1991, pp. 791-800;
14. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, Deadly Dust: Silicosis and the Politics of Occupational Disease in Twentieth-Century America, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1991;
15. David Egilman, 'The Asbestos TLV: Early Evidence of Inadequacy', American Journal of Industrial Medicine, no. 30, 1996, pp. 369-370;
16. Claudia Clark, Radium Girls: Women and Industrial Health Reform, 1910-1935, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1997;
17. Beris Penrose, 'Medical Experts and Occupational Illness: Weil's Disease in North Queensland, 1933-1936', Labour History, no. 75, November 1998, pp. 125-143.
18. William Graebner, 'Hegemony Through Science: Information Engineering and Lead Toxicology, 1925-1965', in D. Rosner and G. Markowitz (eds), Dying for Work: Workers' Safety and Health in Twentieth Century America, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1989, p. 141;
19. Richard Wedeen, 'Shaping Environmental Research: the Lead Industries Association 1928-1946', Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, vol. 62, no. 5, October 1995, pp. 386-389;
20. Herbert Needleman, 'Clair Patterson and Robert Kehoe: Two Views of Lead Toxicity', Environmental Research, section A, vol. 78, August 1998, pp. 79-85;
21. Nriagu, '"Show Me the Data"', pp. 71-8;
22. Christian Warren, Brush with Death: a Social History of Lead Poisoning, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 2000, p. 129.
23. International Labour Office, 'Accumulators (Storage Batteries)', p. 24.
24. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, 'The Early Movement for Occupational Safety and Health, 1900-1917', in J. Walzer Leavitt and R.L. Numbers (eds), Sickness and Health in America, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1997, p. 468;
25. Corn, Response to Occupational Health Hazards, pp. 4-5;
26. Alice Hamilton, 'Industrial Lead-Poisoning in the Light of Recent Studies', Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 59, no. 10, 7 September 1912, p. 777.
27. Rosner and Markowitz, 'The Early Movement for Occupational Safety and Health', p. 473.
28. E.R. Hayhurst, Industrial Health-Hazards and Occupational Diseases in Ohio, University of Chicago, Chicago, 1915.
29. John B. Andrews, Deaths from Industrial Lead Poisoning (Actually Reported) in New York State in 1909 and 1910, reprinted from Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor, no. 95, Washington, D.C., 1912, pp. 263-265.
30. Hamilton, Lead Poisoning in Manufacture of Batteries, p. 9.
31. Alice Hamilton, 'Lead-Poisoning in Illinois', Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 56, no. 17, 29 April 1911, pp. 1240-1244.
32. Alice Hamilton, 'Lead Poisoning in American industry', Journal of Industrial Hygiene, vol. 1, May 1919, p. 17.
33. Paul Holmes, 'Health Hazards in the Industries of Niagara Falls, N.Y.', Public Health Reports, vol. 35, no. 1, 2 January 1920, p. 13.
34. Hamilton, Lead Poisoning in Manufacture of Batteries, pp. 22, 27;
35. Austin D. Reiley, 'The Problem of Ascertaining the Actual Rise in Mortality Caused by Unhealthy Trades', Journal of Industrial Hygiene, vol. 1, no. 3, July 1919, p. 110;
36. Hamilton, 'Lead Poisoning in American Industry', p. 14.
37. Hamilton, Lead Poisoning in Manufacture of Batteries, p. 10.
38. Hamilton, Lead Poisoning in Manufacture of Batteries, pp. 12, 18;
39. Hayhurst, Industrial Health-Hazards, pp. 201-202.
40. Hamilton, Lead Poisoning in Manufacture of Batteries, pp. 19, 23.
41. Industrial and Labor Information, vol. 2, no. 10, 9 June 1922, p. 25;
42. Andrews, Deaths from Industrial Lead Poisoning, p. 263.
43. Alice Hamilton, 'Lead Poisoning in the United States', American Journal of Public Health, vol. 4, no. 6, June 1914, pp. 477-478.
44. Hamilton, 'Industrial Lead-Poisoning', p. 779.
45. Anthony Bale, 'Medicine in the Industrial Battle: Early Workers Compensation', Social Science of Medicine, vol. 28, no. 11, 1989, p. 1116.
46. Christopher Sellers, Hazards of the Job: from Industrial Disease to Environmental Health Science, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1997, p. 111.
47. Rosner and Markowitz, "The Early Movement for Occupational Safety and Health', p. 473.
48. Sidney Lens, The Labor Wars: from the Molly Maguires to the Sitdowns, Anchor Books, New York, 1974, pp. 257-259;
49. Daniel Berman, Death on the Job: Occupational Health and Safety Struggles in the United States, Monthly Review Press, New York, 1978, pp. 21, 77;
50. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, 'Introduction: Workers Health and Safety: Some Historical Notes', in Rosner and Markowitz (eds), Dying for Work, pp. ix-xx;
51. Richard Rabin, 'Warnings Unheeded: a History of Child Lead Poisoning', American Journal of Public Health, vol. 79, no. 12, December 1989, p. 1672;
52. Rosner and Markowitz, 'The Early Movement for Occupational Safety and Health', p. 467.
53. J.S. Mark, 'Prevention and Control of Lead Poisoning in Industry', Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, vol. 28, October 1931, p. 773.
54. Quoted in Rosner and Markowitz, 'Introduction: Workers Health and Safety', p. xv.
55. E. Falconer, 'Lead Intoxication', California and Western Medicine, vol. 34, April 1931, p. 253.
56. Alice Hamilton, P. Reznikoff, G. Burnham, 'Tetra-Ethyl Lead', Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 84, 16 May 1925, pp. 1481-1486.
57. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, '"A Gift of God"?: the Public Health Controversy over Leaded Gasoline During the 1920s', in Rosner and Markowitz (eds), Dying for Work, pp. 126-129.
58. Herbert Needelman, 'The Removal of Lead from Gasoline: Historical and Personal Reflections', Environmental Research, vol. 84, no. 1, 2000, p. 24.
59. Great Britain Ministry of Health Committee on Ethyl Petrol, Minutes of Evidence taken before the Departmental Committee on Ethyl Petrol, His Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1928, p. 56.
60. Great Britain Committee on Ethyl Petrol, Minutes of Evidence, p. 1;
61. W.F. Machle, Tetra-Ethyl Lead Intoxication and Poisoning by Related Compounds of Lead', Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 105, no. 8, 24 August 1935, p. 578;
62. Rosner and Markowitz, '"A Gift of God"?', pp. 125-128;
63. Needleman, 'Clair Patterson and Robert Kehoe';
64. Warren, Brush with Death, pp. 117-129.
65. Warren, Brush with Death, p. 129.
66. Quoted in Peter English, Old Paint: a Medical History of Childhood Lead-Paint Poisoning in the United States to 1980, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick and London, 2001, p. 39.
67. Navarro, 'Work, Ideology, and Science', p. 541.
68. Graebner, 'Hegemony through Science' p. 148;
69. Rabin, 'Warnings Unheeded', p. 1671;
70. Wedeen, 'Shaping Environmental Research', p. 388;
71. Sellers, Hazards of the Job, p. 174.
72. Sellers, Hazards of the Job, p. 159.
73. Sellers, Hazards of the Job, pp. 183-184.
74. Warren, Brush with Death, p. 130.
75. Graebner, 'Hegemony through Science', p. 155.
76. Robert Kehoe, G. Edgar, F. Thamann and L. Sanders, 'The Excretion of Lead by Normal Persons', Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 87, no. 25, 18 December 1926, p. 2081;
77. Robert Kehoe and F. Thamann, 'The Excretion of Lead', Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 92, 27 April 1929, pp. 1418-1421;
78. Robert Kehoe, F. Thamann and J. Cholak, 'On the Normal Absorption and Excretion of Lead. I. Lead Absorption and Excretion in Primitive Life', Journal of Industrial Hygiene, vol. 15, no. 5, September 1933, pp. 257-272.
79. Thomas Legge, Industrial Maladies, Oxford University Press, London, 1934, p. 50.
80. R.W. Tannahill, 'A Critical Survey of the Methods for the Determination of Lead in Biological Material', Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 2, 16 February 1929, pp. 194-201;
81. R.W. Tannahill, 'The Excretion of Lead by Mine Workers at Broken Hill', Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 2, 16 February 1929, pp. 201-205;
82. R.W. Tannahill, 'Lead Excretion of Workers at the Smelters, Port Pirie', Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 2, 16 February 1929, pp. 205-208.
83. Charles Badham, 'Basophilia and Lead Excretion in Lead Poisoning', Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 2, 16 December 1933, p. 818;
84. Ronald Lane, 'Punctate Basophilia in the Diagnosis of Plumbism', Clinical Journal, vol. 61, 27 January 1932, p. 42;
85. Legge, Industrial Maladies, p. 51;
86. J. Chalmers, 'Lead Content of Human Blood', Lancet, vol. 238, 1940, pp. 447-450.
87. Legge, Industrial Maladies, p. 51.
88. C.N Myers, F. Gustafson and B. Throne, 'The Distribution and Diagnostic Significance of Lead in the Human Body', New York State Journal of Medicine, vol. 35, 1 June 1935, p. 582.
89. C.N. Myers, 'The Medico-Legal Aspects of Chronic Metallic Poisoning', International Journal of Medicine and Surgery, vol. 45, October 1932, p. 474.
90. Downloaded from www.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk by Elsevier Bv on September 7, 2023
91. Myers, Gustafson and Throne, 'The Distribution and Diagnostic Significance of Lead', pp. 580-582.
92. Needleman, 'Clair Patterson and Robert Kehoe', p. 80.
93. Tannahill, 'A Critical Survey', p. 198.
94. Tannahill, 'The Excretion of Lead', p. 203.
95. Thomas Oliver, Occupations from the Social, Hygienic and Medical Points of View, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1916, p. 9.
96. R.Y. Mathew, 'The Blood of Workers Exposed to Lead', Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 2, 16 February 1929, p. 214.
97. Philip Donohue, 'The Prevention of Industrial Lead Poisoning', Minnesota Medicine, vol. 8, September 1925, p. 597;
98. Lane, 'Punctate Basophilia', p. 43;
99. Robert Kehoe, F. Thamann and J. Cholak, 'Normal Absorption and Excretion of Lead', Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 104, no. 3, 12 January 1935, p. 90;
100. Alice Hamilton, 'Medico-Legal Aspects of Industrial Poisonings', Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, vol. 12, December 1936, p. 638.
101. Waldemar Dreessen, T. Edwards, W. Reinhart, R. Page, S. Webster, D. Armstrong and R.R. Sayers, The Control of the Lead Hazard in the Storage Battery Industry (United States Public Health Service Bulletin, no. 262), Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C, 1941.
102. American Public Health Association, Occupational Lead Exposure and Lead Poisoning: a Report Prepared by the Committee on Lead Poisoning of the Industrial Hygiene Section of the American Public Health Association, American Public Health Association, New York, 1943, p. 17.
103. Beris Penrose, 'Government Response to Lead Poisoning from Paint: Historical Lessons and Legacies', Labour and Industry, vol. 11, no. 1, August 2000, pp. 95-114;
104. Robert Proctor, The Nazi War on Cancer, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2000, p. 288, fn. 4.
105. Ludwig Teleky, 'Lessons From the History of Lead Poisoning: a Review of International Experience', Industrial Medicine, vol. 9, no. 1, January 1940, p. 19.
106. Felix Wormser, 'Facts and Fallacies Concerning Exposure to Lead', Occupational Medicine, vol. 3, no. 2, February 1947, ?. 139.
107. Warren, Brush with Death, p. 216.
108. Hamilton, 'Lead Poisoning in American industry', p. 17.
109. A.E. Russell, R.R. Jones, J.J. Bloomfield, R.H. Britten and L.R. Thompson, Lead Poisoning in a Storage Battery Plant (United States Public Health Service Bulletin, no. 205), Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., June 1933, pp. 9-10, 14, 23.
110. Alice Hamilton, 'The Storage Battery Industry', Journal of Industrial Hygiene, vol. 9, no. 3, August 1927, p. 368.
111. Donohue, 'The Prevention of Industrial Lead Poisoning';
112. G.H. Gehrmann, 'Prevention of Lead Poisoning in Industry', American Journal of Public Health, vol. 23, July 1933, pp. 687-692.
113. Elston Belknap, 'Control of Lead Poisoning in the Worker', Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 104, no. 3, 19 January 1935, p. 207.
114. Mark, 'Prevention and Control of Lead Poisoning', p. 776.
115. Gehrmann, 'Prevention of Lead Poisoning', p. 688.
116. Belknap, 'Control of Lead Poisoning', p. 206.
117. Max K?mmel, 'Medicolegal Aspects of Disability in Industrial Lead Poisoning', Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, vol. 28, April 1931, p. 238.
118. Donohue, 'The Prevention of Industrial Lead Poisoning', p. 597;
119. C. McCord, H. Walworth, J. Johnston and P. Fisher, 'The Atmospheric Content of Lead and its Correlation with Basophilic Aggregation Tests in Exposed Storage Battery Workers', Industrial Medicine, vol. 6, no. 6, June 1937, p. 357.
120. Donohue, 'The Prevention of Industrial Lead Poisoning', p. 597;
121. Russell, et al., Lead Poisoning in a Storage Battery Plant;
122. Harriet Hardy, Challenging Man-Made Disease: Memoirs of Harriet L. Hardy, Praeger, New York, 1983;
123. Hamilton, Lead Poisoning in Manufacture of Batteries, p. 22;
124. J.D. Hackett, 'Storage Battery Plants, New York State, 1933', American Journal of Public Health, vol. 24, September 1934, p. 971;
125. K?mmel, 'Medicolegal Aspects', p. 329;
126. Warren, Brush with Death, p. 86.
127. Quoted in Warren, Brush with Death, p. 78.
128. Alice Hamilton, 'Industrial Poisons', New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 209, 10 August 1933, p. 279.
129. McCord et al., "The Atmospheric Content of Lead', p. 357.
130. K?mmel, 'Medicolegal Aspects', p. 329.
131. Hardy, Challenging Man-Made Disease, p. 118.
132. K?mmel, 'Medicolegal Aspects', pp. 328-329.
133. Joseph Aub, 'Relationship of Lead Poisoning to Industry', Industrial Medicine, vol. 1, no. 1, October 1932, p. 64.
134. May Mayers, 'A Study of the Lead Line, Arteriosclerosis, and Hypertension in 381 Lead Workers', Journal of Industrial Hygiene, vol. 9, no. 6, June 1927, p. 246.
135. Aub, 'Relationship of Lead Poisoning to Industry', p. 64;
136. Charles Badham, 'An Investigation Concerning the Incidence of Lead Poisoning in Motor-Car Painters', Studies in Industrial Hygiene, no. 6, New South Wales Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly Papers, 1925-1926, Sydney, 1925, p. 100.
137. K?mmel, 'Medicolegal Aspects', p. 328.
138. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, 'Safety and Health as a Class Issue: the Workers Health Bureau of America during the 1920s', in Rosner and Markowitz (eds), Dying for Work, p. 53.
139. Automotive Industries, vol. 50, no. 9, 28 February 1924, p. 527.
140. United States Bureau of Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, part II, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1975, p. 716.
141. Battery News, vol. 1, no. 1, December 1926, p. 8.
142. Battery News, vol. 6, no. 1, October 1931, p. 17.
143. Pamela E. de Silver, Science at Work: a History of Occupational Health in Victoria, PenFolk Publishing, Blackburn, Victoria, 2000, p. 10;
144. Sellers, Hazards of the Job, p. 112.
145. Quoted in Nriagu, 'Clair Patterson and Robert Kehoe's Paradigm', p. 73.
146. Electrical Review, 28 November 1930, p. 906;
147. Electrical Review, 13 February 1931, p. 280;
148. 'Report of the Director-General of Public Health, New South Wales, for the year 1930', Joint Volumes of Papers Presented to the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly, New South Wales, 1930-32, vol. IV, 29th Parliament, Sydney, 1932, p. 390.
149. Electrical Review, 18 October 1929, p. 681. 98. 'Report of the Director-General of Public Health, New South Wales, for the Year 1929', Joint Volumes of Papers Presented to the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly, New South Wales 1930 32, vol. IV, 29th Parliament, Sydney, 1932;
150. 'Report of the Director-General of Public Health, New South Wales, for the Year 1930', p. 390.
151. Battery News, vol. 3, no. 1, December 1928, p. 34
152. Battery News, January 1930, p. 10;
153. Battery News, vol. 5, no. 9, January, 1931, pp. 9, 14, 15;
154. Battery News, May 1931, p. 22.
155. Battery News, January 1930, p. 10;
156. Battery News, vol. 5, no. 9, January 1931, pp. 10, 13, 14;
157. Electrical Review, 2 November 1928, p. 755. 102. 'Report of the Director-General of Public Health, New South Wales, for the Year 1930', p. 390;
158. 'Report of the Director-General of Public Health, New South Wales, for the Years 1931 and 1932', Joint Volumes of Papers Presented to the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly, New South Wales, 1933-1934, vol. 1, 4th Session of the 30th Parliament, Sydney, 1934, p. 523.
159. G.C. Willcocks, 'Lead Poisoning', Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 2, 16 December 1933, pp. 813-816;
160. also see New South Wales annual reports of director general of health throughout the 1930s.
161. Willcocks, 'Lead Poisoning', p. 814.
162. International Labour Office, 'Accumulators (Storage Batteries)', pp. 26, 31;
163. 'Lead Poisoning Resulting from Manufacture of Storage Batteries', Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 85, no. 18, 31 October 1925, pp. 1412-1413.
164. International Labour Office, 'Accumulators (Storage Batteries)', pp. 29, 24.
165. International Labour Office, 'Lead Poisoning', in International Labour Office, Occupation and Health: an Encyclopaedia of Hygiene, Pathology and Social Welfare, vol. I, Geneva, 1933, p. 124.
166. Thomas Legge, 'Twenty Years Experience of the Notification of Industrial Diseases', Journal of Industrial Hygiene, vol. 12, April 1920, p. 590;
167. Legge, Industrial Maladies, p. 50.
168. C.W. Price and J.C. Bridge, "The Manufacture and Repair of Electric Accumulators', Journal of Industrial Hygiene, vol. 7, no. 10, October 1925, p. 456.
169. Ronald E. Lane, 'The Prevention of Industrial Plumbism', Lancet, vol. 2, 25 July 1936, p. 206.
170. 'Report of the Director-General of Public Health, New South Wales, for the Year 1938', Joint Volumes of Papers Presented to the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly, New South Wales, vol. V, 2nd Session of the 32nd Parliament, Sydney, 1940, p. 298.
171. Government of India Ministry of Labour, Environmental and Medical Studies in the Storage Battery Industry, Office of the Chief Adviser, Factories, New Delhi, 1953.
172. Report of Proceedings of the Board Appointed by the Government to Inquire into a Report upon the Subject of Chronic Lead Poisoning in Queensland from 30 May 1898 until 24 August 1898, Queensland State Archives (Brisbane): loc. no. A/5077, dept. no., 24/8150.
173. Penrose, 'Government Response to Lead Poisoning from Paint', pp. 100-101.
174. John C. Burnham, 'Biom?dical Communication and the Reaction to the Queensland Childhood Lead Poisoning Cases Elsewhere in the World', Medical History, vol. 43, no. 2, April, 1999.
175. Penrose, 'Government Response to Lead Poisoning from Paint', p. 101.
176. Quoted in Penrose, 'Government Response to Lead Poisoning from Paint', p. 105.
177. Penrose, 'Government Response to Lead Poisoning from Paint';
178. Anthony Lanza, 'Epidemiology of Lead Poisoning', Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 104, no. 2, 12 January 1935, p. 86;
179. English, Old Paint, p. 26.
180. Richard Gillespie, 'Epidemics and Power: Weil's Disease in North Queensland, 1929-1939', Occasional Papers on Medical History Australia, vol. 4, 1990, pp. 59-65.
181. Penrose, 'Government Response to Lead Poisoning from Paint', pp. 105-106
182. Gillespie, 'Accounting for Lead Poisoning', p. 327.
183. Charles Badham and H.B. Taylor, 'Lead Poisoning: Concerning the Standards Which Should be Used in Diagnosing this Industrial Disease, Together with a New Method for the Determination of Lead in Urine', Studies in Industrial Hygiene, no. 7, Joint Volumes of Papers Presented to the Legislative Council a 123. 'Enquiry into Lead Poisoning and its Incidence', Queensland Parliamentary Papers, vol. 2, Brisbane, 1933, p. 176.
184. Warren, Brush with Death, p. 99.
185. Willcocks, 'Lead Poisoning', p. 125.
186. S.A. Smith, 'Some Aspects of Lead Absorption', Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 2, 26 September 1925, p. 391.
187. Badham and Taylor, 'Lead Poisoning: Concerning the Standards', p. 64;
188. Badham, 'Basophilia and Lead Excretion', p. 819.
189. Badham, 'An Investigation Concerning the Incidence of Lead Poisoning', p. 91.
190. Badham, 'Basophilia and Lead Excretion', p. 820.
191. D.O. Shiels, 'The Concentration of Lead in the Urine of Workers at Mount Isa Mines Limited, Queensland, with Special Reference to its Value in the Diagnosis of Lead Poisoning', Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 1, no. 17, 25 April 1936, pp. 559-565;
192. D.O. Shiels, 'The Ratio of Large to Small Lymphocytes in Persons Exposed to a Lead Hazard', Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 1, 20 June 1936, pp. 847-849;
193. D.O. Shiels, 'Comparison of Punctate Basophilia and Ratio of Large to Small Lymphocytes in the Diagnosis and Prevention of Lead Poisoning', Medical Journal of Australia, 10 April 1937, pp. 535-545.
194. Quoted in Wedeen, 'Shaping Environmental Research', p. 388. 132. 'Report of the Director-General of Public Health, New South Wales, for the Year 1930', p. 524;
195. 'Report of the Director-General of Public Health, New South Wales, for the Years 1931 and 1932', p. 523;
196. 'Report of the Director-General of Public Health, New South Wales, for the Year 1934', Joint Volumes of Papers Presented to the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly, New South Wales, vol. Ill, Sydney, 1936, p. 122. 133.
197. 'Annual Report of the Health and Medical Services of the State of Queensland for the Year 1939 40', Queensland Parliamentary Papers, vol. II, 3rd session of the 28th Parliament, Brisbane, 1940, p. 1060.
198. 'Annual Report on Health and Medical Services', Queensland Parliamentary Papers, vol. II, Brisbane, 1947-48, pp. 984-985.
199. Frederick Cartwright and Michael Biddiss, Disease and History, Barnes & Noble, New York, 1991, pp. 158-162.
200. 'Battery Reclamation Workers', Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports, 1 May 1992, p. 303.
201. The years surveyed were 1986-2002.